1. Military history of ancient Rome
The fighting men who made rome legendary

2. Essential question
What role did Rome’s military play in its expansion from a relatively small city-state to an empire?

3. Ruled by foreign powers
Rome’s military might was among the primary reasons the Republic was able to conquer and control so much territory
Initially, Rome was only a small city on the western banks of the Tiber River. The Etruscans dominated central Italy at the time. They ruled Rome and many other cities of Etruria and Latium
Rome was ruled by foreign powers until 509 B.C when the last Etruscan king, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, also known as Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown

4. The Last king of rome
In 509 B.C.E., the last Etruscan king, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, also known as Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown
Tarquin and his family was expelled peacefully but soon returned seeking to reassert their power over Rome.
Tarquin failed in his attempt to re-conquer the Romans, and asked other Etruscan cities for help

5. Revolution against Etruscan rulle
Only Lars Porsena, king of the Etruscan city Clusium gave aid to Tarquin
In 508 B.C.E. Porsena besieged Rome. The attack was ostensibly made to restore Tarquin, but some historians argue that Porsena’s campaign was motivated by a desire to rule Rome himself
This struggle lasted until Porsena and the Etruscans made peace and withdrew in 506 B.C. Accounts differ on why this occurred
Etruscan sources claim that Porsena conquered Rome, and had to be forcibly expelled
Roman sources claim that several shows of great bravery by the Romans caused the Etruscans to sue for peace

6. Early roman army
At this time, the Romans and the Etruscans fought primarily in the phalanx style. Like Greek armies, the phalanxes were supported by light troops (skirmishers) and cavalry
The king Servius Tullius, one of the few Roman kings of Rome, re-organized the army from a force of aristocrats into a citizen-army
Wealth and age determined military duties
Juniores (age 17 to 45) fought outside of the city walls
Seniores (46-60) were tasked with defending the city

7. Treaties with the latins
When the conflict ended, Rome was no longer under threat of Etruscan rule
Once Rome fended off the Etruscans, around 30 Italian city-states formed an anti-Roman alliance know as the Latin League
The Latin League suffered attacks from tribes in the Apennine Mountains, a long mountain range that separates Italy into an eastern and western side.
The attacks of the mountain tribes led Rome and the other Latin city-states to sign a mutual defense treaty known as the Cassian Treaty
In 486 BCE, the Romans, signed another treaty with the Apennine Mountain tribe known as the Hernici, who were under threat from the Volsci tribe
With help from the Latin-League and the Hernici, the Romans defeated the Volsci. Romans and Latins settled in the Volsci’s former lands

8. Expanding control & power in central italy
Rome fought two wars against Veii for control of the region around the Tiber River
In 405 B.C.E., the Romans began a war to annex the city of Veii, which lay Northwest of Rome
After a 10 year siege that included some severe defeats, the Romans, led by the consul Marcus Furius Camillus, dug a tunnel beneath the walls of Veii and conquered the city
Camillus’ conquests expanded Rome’s territory by 70% and made Rome the most powerful nation in Central Italy

9. The battle of allia
In 387 BCE, a warband of the Gallic Senones tribes, led by the warchief Brennus, attacked from Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy)
The Senones defeated the Romans at the Battle of Allia
The center of the Roman battle line was a hoplite phalanx made up of many of rome’s older citizens.
The Roman flanks were comprised of poorer and poorly armed troops (they had to supply their own equipment) and were quickly routed by the Senones, who then surrounded and destroyed the phalanx center
The battle of allia was one of the worst military disasters in the history of the roman republic

10. The sack of rome
After the battle, the senones entered and sacked rome doing great damage to the city
The invaders demanded 1,000 lbs. of gold as ransom for leaving the city
The defeat at allia and the humiliation of the gauls’ conquest of the city, created changes in the roman army

11. Aftermath of allia
The Gallic invaders taught Rome much about weaponry. Their successful incursion showed the romans the need to modify their legions to combat the sword-wielding gauls
The Senones were much better equipped than the Romans, wearing chainmail and wielding longswords
Before the senones invasion, rome fought against similarly armed and equipped armies

12. Camillian reforms
Following the disaster of Allia, Marcus Camillus overhauled the Roman Legions
The hoplite phalanx style spear was replaced by the shorter “hasta” spear Legions still fought in the Phalanx formation
Hasta was 6 Ft. Long and made primarily of ash
Early legionaries were equipped with short stabbing swords, but The spear remained the primary weapon
The reach of the spear allowed soldiers to strike from a further distance than the sword

13. Roman Conquest of central italy

14. Aftermath of brennus’ invasion
Many of the Italian city-states and mountain tribes Rome had subjugated were emboldened by Rome’s catastrophic defeat at the hands of the senones
The etruscans, along with the Aequi and Volsci tribes all waged war against the romans between 390 BCE and 380 BCE
In 360 bce, rome’s former allies, the hernici, allied with the cities of praeneste and tibur in an attempt to halt the spread of roman influence
All of these enemies were defeated and their territories were annexed by rome
Rome’s victory gave them dominance of central Italy

15. Samnite wars
After consolidating power in central Italy, rome turned its attention to the southern Italian peninsula, which was inhabited by the samnites and campanians
Three samnite wars were fought between 343 bce and 290 bce
In 354 bce rome signed a treaty with the samnites, likely to deal with the threat posed by the gauls of northern Italy
The samnites were a confederation of 4 tribes: Hirpini, caudini, caraceni, and pentri
Confederation: “an organization that consists of a number of parties or groups united in an alliance or league”

16. First samnite war (343 bce-341 bce)
In 343 BCE, the Samnites raided the lands of the Sidicini tribe
The Campani tribe sent aid to the Sidicini. When this occurred, the Samnites retaliated by attacking Capua, a wealthy city-state in the Campania region of central italy
The Capuans asked Rome for help. Rome decided to switch sides and support the Capuans against the Samnites.
Rome sought to prevent the samnites from gaining capua’s wealth and manpower and to secure it for themselves
With the help of the Romans, Capua expelled the Samnites, and swore allegiance to rome. Their wealth and manpower would be vital to later war efforts
The Romans faced troop mutiny following the victory, but the Samnites faced attacks from the greeks of Tarentum (in south Italy) so both sides agreed to renew the treaty of 354 BCE, ending the war

17. Second samnite war Fought between 326 BCE and 304 BCE
Also called the Great Samnite War
The romans and the samnites fought together during the latin war ( BCE). Samnite aid was crucial to roman victory, which gave the romans dominion over the latin tribes and the latium region of central italy
After subduing the latin tribes, the romans sought to extend their territory southwards

18. Outbreak of war
Rome intentionally provoked the war by building colonies in Samnium
The Samnites reacted by declaring war on the Romans
Samnites were busy with the city Neapolis on Italy’s western coast
Neapolis and the Samnites formed an alliance to help the Neapolitans expand from the coast but the city’s aristocracy felt threatened by the Samnites’ military presence and war broke out
Unable to resist the Samnites, the Neapolitans asked Rome for help, which Rome gave

19. Early stages of the Great Samnite war
The first 5 years of the war saw the Roman legions have great success
However, the tide turned in the Samnites’ favor at the Battle of Caudine Forks
Two Roman armies attempted an invasion of Samnium in 321 BCE
They were tricked by Samnite soldiers dressed as shepherds and went through the narrow mountain pass known as the Caudine Forks, which had only one entrance and one exit
The Samnites barricaded one side and occupied the other, leaving Roman armies trapped in the Caudine Forks
After several days, the Romans began to run low on food and water and surrendered. The Romans were forced to go “under the yoke”, a humiliating ritual for defeated and disgraced warriors. The insult was heightened by the yoke being made of captured Roman spears.
600 Equites were handed over as hostages and a pro-samnite peace was established
This defeat would serve as motivation for the Romans for the remainder of the war

20. Second stage of the war
In 315 BC the Romans were soundly defeated by the Samnites at the Battle of Lautulae
The disasters at Lautulae and the Caudine Forks showed the Romans a need to reform their armies yet again
The Romans still used the phalanx formation during the Second Samnite War, but adopted the Manipular formation used by the Samnites
The Manipular formation was more flexible and better suited for the rough, hilly, and mountainous terrain of central Italy
The Roman’s adoption of the manipular formation was a key factor in their later success against the Samnites
The manipular formation stayed in place during the Republican period and became the Cohort formation in the Empire

21. Third phase of the great war
The defeat at Lautulae split Roman territory in half
In 314 BCE, the Campanians began to consider defecting from Rome and abandoning the Samnites
In 311 BCE, the Etruscans joined the Samnites, forcing Rome to fight on multiple fronts
After the initial shock, Rome regrouped and began to assert its power
The Etruscans begged for peace in 308 BCE after their defeat at the Battle of Perusia in 310 BCE
In 304 BCE the Samnites begged for peace ending the Second Samnite War
Construction of Rome’s first major highway, the Via Appia, began in 312 BCE to link Rome and Capua, as well as the via valeria
Rome established its first navy and increased its recruitment, going from 6 to 16 military tribunes
13 new colonies were founded against the samnites and 6 new colonial tribes were settled into the annexed territory
Rome also launched several campaigns that extended its power into northern Etruria and Umbria

22. Products of the great samnite war
Construction of Rome’s first major highway, the Via Appia, began in 312 BCE to link Rome and Capua, as well as the via valeria (306 bce)
Rome established its first navy and increased its recruitment, going from 6 to 16 military tribunes
13 new colonies were founded against the samnites and 6 new colonial tribes were settled into the annexed territory
Rome also launched several campaigns that extended its power into northern Etruria and Umbria
The early successes of the samnites transformed the legion from a phalanx-dependent force to the more flexible manipular armies

23. Troops and formations of the early republican legions
Moving From greek-style phalanx to Italian- style maniple

24. Quincunx formation
Once the manipular system became universal, The standard Roman legion went to battle in the “quincunx” formation
This formation was revoluntionary at the time
Each line of the army could retreat through gaps in the line behind it to regroup. This also gave the legion flexibility
In other armies, front line troops or skirmishers would create great chaos in the lines behind them by running through solid walls of infantry

25. Manipular formation (pre-battle)

26. Manipular formation (post-skirmishing)

27. Additional formations

28. velites
Velites were The youngest and poorest men in republican legions who couldn’t afford much equipment—if any at all
Velites carried javelins, a gladius, and at times, a small round shield
Primary role was as skirmishers. They flung their javelins at the enemy to scatter other skirmishers or to break up the enemy’s battle line
Once their javelins were gone or melee became imminent, velites retreated through the gaps in the hastati and helped defend the flanks

29. Hastati The Frontline was made up of troops called Hastati
Hastati were young poor soldiers who had to supply their own armor (the roman senate only gave spear and shield)
Most could only afford the small “Heart Protector”
They took their name from the hasta spear they often carried in the early roman era
In the republican era, the senate equipped hastati with gladii and scutum. Two pilum (for throwing) replaced the hasta

30. principes
The second line in an early republican legion was made up of principes (individually called princeps)
These were older wealthier citizens in the prime of their lives
They could afford good armor and equipment
Principes were deployed when the hastati and velites failed to break the enemy
Principes armor was called ‘lorica hamata’ in latin
Like hastati they carried the large scutum shield, a gladius, two pilum, and the pugio dagger

31. triarii
Triarii were the last part of republican legions to carry the hasta
Unlike other legionaries, triarii fought in the phalanx formation
Triarii were wealthy and experienced citizens, able to afford the best equipment
Triarii formed the third and final line of the legions
These soldiers kneeled behind the principes to preserve their energy
Triarii were the last resort when the hastati and principes failed to break the enemy
Their duty was to hold the enemy so the army could retreat or regroup
If the triarii saw battle, the legion was In a desperate situation and likely facing defeat
“res ad triarios venit” (latin for ‘going to the triarii’) became a roman idiom for a desperate situation

32. equites Drawn from the wealthy eques (or equestrian) class
Played an underrated but important role in the Legions
Primary function was to chase off skirmishers and run down fleeing enemies
Roman cavalry was a respectable force, often triumphing over the heavier cavalry of their enemies
The roman cavalry was only soundly beaten by the cavalry of the Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca, who made use of light Numidian cavalry

33. Polybian/mid-republic legion
Older “important” romans (from the patrician class) were removed from the frontline
Younger, stronger troops were placed on the frontlines, instead of the most wealthy
The new structure reinforced the roman social order by having poor in most danger and the rich in relative safety
Conflict with the samnites during the samnite war (343 BCE-290 BCE transformed the legions from a phalanx force to a manipular force

34. Third samnite war Interwar years:
Between 304 and 298 BCE the Romans extended their control of central Italy
The Aequi, Abruzzi, Marsi, Paeligni, Marrucini, and the Frentani signed permanent treaties of alliance with Rome in 304 BCE. The Vestini did the same in 302 BCE
In 302 BCE the Romans began battling the Etruscans and captured the Umbrian town of Nequinum forcing Rome to fight on multiple fronts by the outbreak of the Third Samnite War

35. Outbreak of War
This conflict was the first attempt by the aggregate people of Italy to stop the spread of Roman power in the peninsula
In 298 BCE, the Samnites sought to forcibly make the Lucanians of South Italy their allies.
The Lucanians asked Rome for help, which Rome gave, launching the Third Samnite War
Rome feared the strength the Samnites would gain if they absorbed the Lucanians
After their defeat at the Battle of Tifernum (295 BCE), the Samnites realized they couldn’t defeat Rome alone and formed a coalition of Etruscans, Senones Gauls, and Umbrians to stop the growth of Roman dominance

36. Battle of sentinum (295 bce)
The crucial battle for control of Italy
Featured more troops than any other battle in history to that point
Rome sent a small army to threaten the Etruscans and Umbrians, forcing them to return to their home territories to defend them.
The coalition lost some 30,000 men to this ruse, reducing their strength from 80,000 to 50,000. The Romans brought 40,000 men to the battle
Only the Senones and Samnites fought in this pivotal battle

37. Battle of Sentinum
Publius Decimus Mus commanded the Roman flank opposed by the Gauls. Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus commanded the flank opposing the Samnites
Mus’ army was nearly routed by the Gallic chariots but rallied after Mus committed devotio a form of ritual self-sacrifice, by riding alone into the Gallic army
Fabius Rullianus was able to defeat the Samnites on his flank, then ordered his forces to attack the Gallic flanks with the full weight of his army, driving them and Samnites from the battlefield

38. End of the third samnite war
The Battle of Sentinum was a major turning point in the war for Italy, and made further resistance essentially pointless
The Samnites continued battling until 290 BCE, when they finally submitted to Rome. The Senones were overrun, and both the Umbrians and Etruscans surrendered
Rome emerged as the undisputed masters of central Italy, dominating the area between the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west of the peninsula and the Adriatic Sea to the east
Samnites were given the ‘Civitas sine suffragio’, citizenship without the ability to vote
Only the Gallic tribes of the Po River valley in north Italy and the Greek cities in the extreme south of Italy were not under Roman dominion

39. The pyrrhic war

40. Pyrrhic wars
The Samnites would rise again when the Greek general Pyrrhus invaded Italy to help the Greek colonies of the southern tip of the peninsula
Pyrrhus defeated the Romans twice, but the victories were so costly they were like defeats. We now call victories won at great, potentially disastrous costs “Pyrrhic victories”
Pyrrhus was defeated in 280 BCE, giving Rome total control of all the peoples of Italy