1. Qualitative Methods: Action Research Design & Case Study Design
Chapter 8

2. Case Study Design
Robson (2002:178) defines case study as ‘a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence’.
The phenomenon being studied and the context within which it is being studied are not clearly evident.

3. When to use case study?
If you wish to gain a rich understanding of the context of the research and the processes being enacted (Morris and Wood, 1991).
When your research questions are ‘why?’ as well as the ‘what?’ and ‘how?’ questions.
case study strategy is most often used in explanatory and exploratory research.

4. Case Study Design
The data collection techniques employed may be various
interviews, observation, documentary analysis
Need to use and triangulate multiple sources of data.
Triangulation refers to the use of different data collection techniques within one study in order to ensure that the data are telling you what you think they are telling you.

5. Case Study Design
Yin (2003) distinguishes between four case study strategies based upon two discrete dimensions:
single case v. multiple case;
holistic case v. embedded case.

6. Single Case Study
A single case is often used where it represents a critical case or, alternatively, an extreme or unique case.
provides you with an opportunity to observe and analyze a phenomenon that few have considered before (rare phenomenon)
you will need to have a strong justification for this choice.

7. Multiple Case Study
The rationale for using multiple cases focuses upon the need to establish whether the findings of the first case occur in other cases and, as a consequence, the need to generalize from these findings.

8. Holistic vs Embedded Case Study
Assume you choose your work organization as the background of your study
If your research is concerned only with the organization as a whole then you are treating the organization as a holistic case study.
If you wish to examine also a number of logical sub-units within the organization, perhaps departments or work groups, then your case will inevitably involve more than one unit of analysis. Whatever way you select these units, this would be called an embedded case study

9. Action Research Design
“Action Research is a process in which participants examine their own practice, systematically and carefully, using the techniques of research”(Watts,H,1985).
Characteristics of Action Research;
the research is concerned with the resolution of organizational issues
the involvement of practitioners in the research and researchers
iterative nature of the process of diagnosing, planning, taking action and evaluating
the results could inform other contexts

10. Action Research Processes

11. Collecting primary data through observation

12. What is observation? Observation involves: Systematic observation
Recording
Description
Analysis and
Interpretation of people’s behaviour

13. Types of observation:
Participant observation – discovers the meaning that people attach to their actions (more qualitative).
Has its roots in social anthropology – the individual derives a sense of identity from interaction and communication with others (symbolic interactionism)

14. Participant observation: researcher roles
Gill and Johnson (2002) develop a fourfold categorisation (Figure 9.1) of the role the participant observer can adopt. The roles are:
complete participant
complete observer
observer as participant
participant as observer.

15. Participant observation: researcher roles
The first two of these roles, the complete participant and the complete observer, involve you as the researcher in concealing your identity. This has the significant advantage of your not conditioning the behaviour of the research subjects you are studying.
The second two, observer as participant and participant as observer, entail you revealing your purpose to those with whom you are mixing in the research setting. Ethically, the latter two roles are less problematic.

16. Complete participant
The complete participant role sees you as the researcher attempting to become a member of the group in which you are performing research.
You do not reveal your true purpose to the group members.
This example raises questions of ethics.
You are in a position where you are ‘spying’ on people who have probably become your friends as well as colleagues.
They may have learned to trust you with information that they would not share were they to know your true purpose.

18. Participant observation: data collection
Delbridge and Kirkpatrick (1994) categorise the types of data generated by participant observation as ‘primary’, ‘secondary’ and ‘experiential’.
Primary observations are those where you would note what happened or what was said at the time. Keeping a diary is a good way of doing this.

19. Participant observation: data collection
Secondary observations are statements by observers of what happened or was said.
This necessarily involves those observers’ interpretations.

20. Participant observation: data collection
Experiential data are those data on your perceptions and feelings as you experience
the process you are researching. Keeping a diary of these perceptions proves a valuable source of data when the time comes to write
This may also include notes on how you feel that your values have intervened, or changed, over the research process.

22. Threats to reliability and validity
Participant observation is very high on ecological validity because it involves studying social phenomena in their natural contexts.
observer bias
‘because we are part of the social world we are studying we cannot detach ourselves from it, or for that matter avoid relying on our common sense knowledge and life experiences when we try to interpret it’.

23. Types of observation:
Structured observation – more concerned with the frequency of this action (more quantitative). It is systematic and has a high level of predetermined structure. Uses self-completion diaries

26. Advantages of structured observation
It can be used by anyone after some training – so it can be delegated
The results are reliable
Not only observes the frequency of events, but also records the relationship between them
No personal interpretation on events by observers, everything is recorded the moment it happens
Structured observation secures information that otherwise would be ignored as insignificant

27. Disadvantages of structured observation
Observer must be present when phenomena happen
Research results are limited to overt action
Data is slow and expensive to collect

29. Threats to validity and reliability
Subject error
Subject error may cause your data to be unreliable.
Example; Subject error may be evident if you chose administrators in a section that was short-staffed owing to illness.
This may mean that they were having to spend more time answering telephones, and less time processing orders
Time error
Observer effect
the subject is conscious of being observed.
the process of the observer’s observation of behavior changes the nature of