1. Chapter 10: Congress Opener

2. Congress – with all of its faults – is the most representative body in the land. It reflects – however imperfectly – the bigness and diversity of America. It responds – however imperfectly – to the expressed hopes, desires, and ambitions of the American people.
-Acceptance Remarks from The Honorable Lee H. Hamilton, U.S. Capitol Historical Society, 2005

3. Essential Question
Whose views should members of Congress represent when voting?

4. Guiding Questions Section 1: The Nation Legislature
Why does the Constitution establish a bicameral legislature?
The bicameral legislature was based on the model of Parliament, was a key condition of the Great Compromise, and allows each house of Congress to act as a check on the other.

5. Guiding Questions Section 2: The House of Representatives
How are the seats in the House distributed and what qualifications must members meet?
The 435 seats are apportioned according to the population of each state, with representatives meeting age, citizenship, and residency requirements.

6. Guiding Questions Section 3: The Senate
How does the Senate differ from the House?
The Senate has 100 members, two for each state, who serve longer terms and are seen as being less subject to public pressure and more concerned about national issues.

7. Guiding Questions Section 4: The Members of Congress
What roles and functions do members of Congress perform?
Members of Congress act as legislators, representatives, and servants of their constituents, committee members, and politicians.

8. Chapter 10: Congress Section 1

9. Objectives – I CAN:
Explain why the Constitution provides for a bicameral Congress.
Explain the difference between a term and a session of Congress.
Describe a situation in which the President may convene or end a session of Congress.

10. Key Terms bicameral: a legislature made up of two houses
term: the two-year period during which the U.S. Congress meets, starting on noon of the 3rd day of January of each odd-numbered year
session: for the U.S. Congress, the period of time during which Congress assembles and conducts business; there are two sessions in each term
convene: to begin

11. Key Terms, cont.
adjourn: to suspend operations until the start of the next Congressional session
recess: to temporarily suspend business, such as a session of Congress
prorogue: to end or discontinue; the President has the power to prorogue a session of Congress
special session: a Congressional meeting called to deal with some emergency situation

12. Introduction
Why does the Constitution establish a bicameral legislature?
Historically, it is modeled on the two houses of the British Parliament and colonial legislatures.
Practically, two houses were adopted as part of the Great Compromise, which solved the dispute between large and small states at the Constitutional Convention over how they would be represented in the national legislature.
Theoretically, having two house of Congress means that one house can check the powers of the other.

13. The National Legislature
Congress turns the will of the people into public policy by passing laws.
Pictured here are Senators Arlen Specter (R., Penn.) and Patrick Leahy (D., Vt.)

14. The National Legislature, cont.
The Framers on the whole believed that Congress would be the most powerful branch of the federal government.
The Constitution spends more space detailing the powers and structure of Congress than any other branch of government.
Yet in U.S. history, Congress has perhaps been less admired by the American people than the presidency.

15. Congress and Federalism
Federalism involves the division of power between the central government and the state governments.
The different roles taken by the members of Congress are examples of federalism in the national government.
Each state sends representatives to Congress who act in the interests of the citizens of that state.
At the same time, these congressional representatives must work together on behalf of all Americans to address issues of national importance.

16. Representation
Each state is equally represented in the Senate and represented by population in the House.
Some critics argue that this structure gives too much power to the smallest states.

17. The Capital
Feature Question Answer: Students should note that the two houses need to work together to pass legislation, and also need to agree upon when to adjourn sessions, so close proximity is important to ensure that they can communicate easily.

18. Congressional Terms
Beginning in 1789, Congress has met for two-year terms.
Originally congressional terms began and ended in March. This start date was changed to January 3rd of every odd-numbered year by the 20th Amendment.

19. Congressional Sessions
Checkpoint: How many sessions make up each congressional term?
Congress meets and conducts business twice in each term, holding one session each year.
The second session of a term often begins somewhat later than January 3rd.
Checkpoint Answer: Two sessions, each lasting one year.
I added some spacing to this slide. Make sure it stays consistent when fly-ins are added. -KVE 2/11

20. Adjourning Congress
During a session, Congress can choose to adjourn, or suspend its operations, until the next session.
Though Congress meets for most of the year, each house typically has a few recesses, or breaks, in a session.
Neither house can officially end a session without the approval of the other house.
The President can end a session of Congress, but only if both houses cannot agree on a date to adjourn. This power has never been used.

21. Special Sessions
The President can call one or both houses of Congress into a special session to deal with an emergency situation.
Only 27 joint special sessions have been called. The Senate has been called out alone 46 times, while the House has never been called out alone.
Special sessions are rarely called today since Congress meets for most for the year.
The President may threaten to call a special session if Congress has not acted on a measure important to the presidency.

22. Review
Now that you have learned why the Constitution establishes a bicameral legislature, go back and answer the Chapter Essential Question.
Whose views should members of Congress represent when voting?

23. Chapter 10: Congress Section 2

24. Objectives – I CAN:
Explain how House seats are distributed and describe the length of a term in the House.
Explain how House seats reapportioned among the States after each census.
Describe a typical congressional election and congressional district
Analyze the formal and informal qualifications for election to the House.

25. Key Terms
apportion: to distribute seats in the House of Representatives among the States on the basis of their populations
reapportion: to redistribute the seats in the House every ten years, after each census
off-year election: a Congressional election that takes place in-between presidential elections
single-member district: an election district from which voters elect a single state representative to the House of Representatives

26. Key Terms, cont.
at-large: an election system in which all candidates are elected from the state as a whole, rather than from a single district
gerrymander: drawing the boundaries of an election district so that it gives an advantage to the political party that controls the state legislature
incumbent: the person who currently holds a political office

27. Profile of the 115th Congress – US House of Representatives
House party standings (as of January 3rd, 2017)
240 Republicans
193 Democrats
2 Vacant
Chapter 10, Section 4

28. Introduction
How are the seats in the House distributed and what qualifications must members meet?
There are currently 435 seats in the House.
Seats are distributed based on the population of each state, with each state guaranteed at least one representative.
Representatives must be at least 25 years old, have been a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and reside in the state that they represent. 28

29. Size of the House
For many years the number of seats in the House increased as the country grew in population and new states were added.
The Reapportionment Act of 1929 fixed the size of the House at 435 members.
Congress can change this number if it wishes.

30. Census
Every 10 years the Census Bureau counts the national population.
The Census figures are then used to decide how many representatives each state will have until the next Census is taken.
Currently, each seat in the House represents about 700,000 people.

31. Map Question Answer: In general, the Midwest is losing population while the Southwest and parts of the Southeast are gaining population. 31

32. Congressional Elections
Representatives, like Rep. John Conyers (D., Mich.) pictured here, are elected every two years.
There are no limits on how many two-year terms representatives can serve.
Each state holds elections in November of even-numbered years.

33. Congressional Elections, cont.
Elections held in nonpresidential years are called off-year elections.
Usually the party that holds the presidency loses seats in an off-year election.

34. Congressional Districts
Representatives are elected from single-member congressional districts.
The voters in each district can elect only one representative to the House.
The Westberry v. Sanders Supreme Court ruling in 1964 requires each district in a state to have similar-sized populations.
High population states have more districts than small population states.
Seven states have only one representative, so their district consists of the entire state. 34

35. Gerrymandering
Checkpoint: What is gerrymandering and what are its purpose and result?
Gerrymandering involves drawing the borders of districts to favor one political party.
Tactics include clustering the opposing party’s voters in a few districts or spreading them out thinly over many districts.
Due to gerrymandering, only a few congressional districts in any election are actually at risk to switch their support from one party to the other.
Checkpoint Answer: Gerrymandering is the act of redrawing the borders of congressional districts to favor one party over others. It makes it easier for members of one party to be elected from a district and difficult for the opposing party to win.

36. Feature Question Answer: Because it makes it likely that the total number of voters in a state or community who support a given party will not be fairly represented in the actual elections held in that state or community, because they will be divided unevenly among congressional districts as a result of gerrymandering.

37. Gerrymandering: Tennessee Style
2003
2013

39. Formal Qualifications
Custom requires representatives to live in the districts they represent.
Representatives must:
Be at least 25 years old
Have been a U.S. citizen for at least 7 years
Be an inhabitant of the state from which he or she is elected.
The House has the power to refuse to seat an elected member, to punish members, and to expel them.

40. Informal Qualifications
Checkpoint: What “informal qualifications” affect a candidate’s electability?
They include factors such as gender, ethnicity, political experience, name recognition, and party affiliation.
Being an incumbent is a big advantage—more than 90 percent of those seeking reelection to the House win.
Being able to raise money is also a key. In 2008 the average cost of running a winning campaign for a seat in the House was over $1 million.
Checkpoint Answer: Gender, ethnicity, political experience, popularity, fundraising ability, and party affiliation. 40

41. Paths to Congress
Heath Shuler (D., NC) had no political experience before his election to the House in 2006.
Shuler had been an NFL quarterback and owned a real estate business.
He was approached by both parties to run for office.
NOTE TO TEACHERS: Above image shows Heath Shuler (D., NC)

42. Paths to Congress, cont.
Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R., FL) was the first Cuban American and Hispanic woman elected to the House in 1989.
She holds a doctorate in education and founded a private elementary school.
She was elected to the Florida State legislature in 1982.

43. Review
Now that you have learned how the seats in the House are distributed and what qualifications members must meet, go back and answer the Chapter Essential Question.
Whose views should members of Congress represent when voting?

44. Chapter 10: Congress Section 3

45. Objectives – I CAN:
Compare the size of the Senate to the size of the House of Representatives.
Describe how senators are elected.
Explain how and why a senator’s term differs from a representative’s term.
Describe the qualifications for election to the Senate.

46. Key Terms
continuous body: a political body in which all of the seats are never up for election at the same time
constituency: the people and interests represented by a politician

47. Introduction How does the Senate differ from the House?
The Senate has only 100 members, two from each state.
Members are elected to six-year terms.
Senators must be at least 30 years old, have been a U.S. citizen for at least nine years, and reside in the state they represent.
Senators are often seen as less subject to public pressure and more concerned about national issues than members of the House.

48. Profile of the 115th Congress – US Senate
Senate party standings (at the beginning of this Congress – January 3rd, 2017)
52 Republicans
46 Democrats
2 Independents, both caucusing with Democrats
Chapter 10, Section 4

49. Structure of the Senate
The size of the Senate changes as new states are admitted to the Union.
The Senate began with 22 members in 1789.
Senators tend to represent a much larger and broader range of citizens than representatives.
Each Senator represents his or her entire state, while only seven representatives are elected at large from their entire state as opposed to a congressional district.

50. The Millionaires’ Club
Senators were originally elected by state legislatures rather than by popular vote.
In the late 1880s, the Senate was called the Millionaires’ Club because legislatures often elected wealthy political party and business leaders.

51. The 17th Amendment
Checkpoint: How were senators chosen before and after the passage of the 17th Amendment?
In 1913, the 17th amendment changed the way Senators were elected.
Senators are now elected by popular vote in statewide elections.
Only one senator is elected from a state during any given election.
Checkpoint Answer: Before the 17th Amendment, they were selected by state legislatures; afterward, they have been chosen by popular vote in statewide elections.

52. Senate Terms
There are no limits on how many six-year terms a Senator can serve.
Senate terms are staggered so that one third of them expire every two years.
All the seats in the Senate are never up for election at the same time.
If a senator dies, resigns, or is expelled, they are typically replaced by a person appointed by the governor of their state until a special election can be held.

53. A Unique Role
Senators are thought of as being more focused on national issues and are more likely to be seen as national political leaders than members of the House. Why?
Due to their longer terms in office, Senators are seen as less susceptible than representatives to the pressures of public opinion
Senators represent larger and more diverse constituencies than representatives in the House, and can champion public policies that appeal to many Americans.

54. National Recognition
Senators receive more national and home state media exposure than members of the House,
Senators often use this publicity to help them launch presidential campaigns.
NOTE TO TEACHERS: In above image, a bipartisan group of senators holds a press conference.

55. Senators: Policy and Prestige
Senators are Washington celebrities - members of what is often called “the world’s most exclusive club.”
Their names are frequently household words and their activities draw media coverage that allows them to call attention to issues that they deem important.
Many senators use the spotlight to launch presidential campaigns.

56. Qualifications
Senators must meet a stricter set of requirements for office than members of the House of Representatives.
The Framers set these requirements, as well as the longer terms in office, because they wanted the Senate to be a more enlightened and responsible legislative body than the House.
NOTE TO TEACHERS: Above image shows Senator Edward Kennedy.
Senator Edward Kennedy (D., Mass)

57. Informal Qualifications
To be electable, senators must also meet informal qualifications.
These can include party affiliation, gender, ethnicity, name recognition, and being an incumbent.
Fundraising is also vital for successful senate campaigns.
Analyzing Political Cartoons Question: The senator is sitting behind a desk, suggesting that it is his office, and the speakers sound like campaign consultants.

58. Senate Discipline
The Senate has the power to discipline its members or refuse to seat an elected member.
The Senate can expel a member with a two thirds vote or punish them with a majority vote.
The Senate has expelled 15 members, most of them senators who supported secession during the Civil War.
The threat of expulsion or the embarrassment of being publicly denounced by the Ethics Committee has led some senators to resign.

59. Review
Now that you have learned how the Senate differs from the House, go back and answer the Chapter Essential Question.
Whose views should members of Congress represent when voting?

60. Chapter 10: Congress Section 4

61. Objectives – I CAN:
Identify the personal and political backgrounds of members of Congress.
Describe the duties performed by those who serve in Congress.
Describe the compensation and privileges of members of Congress.

62. Key Terms
delegate: a lawmaker who acts as the agent of the people who elected him or her, even if it means going against his or her own views
trustee: a lawmaker who acts based on their personal convictions and judgment
partisan: a lawmaker who acts in accordance with their party platform and party leaders
politico: a lawmaker who tries to combine the approaches of the delegate, trustee, and partisan

63. Key Terms, cont. bills: laws proposed in Congress
floor consideration: the process of considering and acting upon a proposed measure or bill on the floor of the House or the Senate
oversight function: the process by which Congress, through its executive committees, ensures that executive branch agencies are carrying out the policies that Congress has set by law
franking privilege: benefit that allows Senate and House members to mail letters and other materials postage-free

64. Introduction What roles and functions do members of Congress perform?
Members of each house have five major roles. They act as:
Legislators
Representatives of their constituents
Committee members
Servants of their constituents
Politicians

65. Overview of Members
Congress is made up mostly of upper-middle-class Americans.
Most of the 535 members of Congress are married white men aged 50 or older who have college degrees and identify themselves as Christians.
Congress has 88 women, 42 African Americans,
24 Hispanics, eight Asian Americans, one Native American, and one Native Hawaiian.
The typical senator is serving a second term, while the average representative has served four terms. 65

66. Ways of Representing
There are four broad ways in which lawmakers choose to represent the people when they vote.
Delegates
Believe they should vote however their constituents want them to, even if it means going against the delegate’s personal views or those of his or her party.
Trustees
Guided by their personal views on each specific issue, even if it may mean voting differently than their constituents might want

67. Ways of Representing, cont.
Partisans
Place their loyalty to their political party first when deciding how to vote. They support the party platform and party leaders.
Politicos
Try to balance the other three approaches—personal views, party loyalty, and the wishes of constituents—when deciding how to vote.
Any of these approaches can place a congressperson in a difficult situation. It is hard to make everyone happy.

68. Feature Question Answer: There is no clear cut answer to the question; it depends upon what role the Senator should take when considering the measure.

69. Committee Members
Members of Congress do much of their work in committees.
Committee members must decide which bills will die in committee and which ones will move ahead to be voted on.
Committee members also provide oversight of executive branch agencies, making sure that they carry out the public policies set by law.

70. Serving the People
Members of Congress and their staffs help citizens of their districts and states deal with the federal bureaucracy.
There are many kinds of request for aid from constituents. Some involve finding information or submitting it through proper channels, while many requests involve putting in a good word or recommendation on behalf of a constituent.
Failing to fulfill such requests can cost members votes in the next election.

71. Compensation Congress sets its own pay.
Today all but a few senators and representatives with special titles make $174,000 per year.
NOTE TO TEACHERS: Above image depicts Republican Senate leaders.

72. Checkpoint: Name five “fringe benefits” for members of Congress.
Benefits include access to inexpensive health care, fine dining, free parking, and generous pensions.
Members receive funds to hire staff and run their rent-free offices. They can mail letters and other materials without postage, print items for free, and produce radio or television tapes at low cost.
Checkpoint Answer: Free postage, free printing, generous pensions, cheap health care, funding for staff, rent-free offices, and inexpensive radio/television production.

73. Privileges of Membership
Members of Congress cannot be arrested for civil crimes while taking part in congressional business.
Members of Congress cannot be charged with libel or slander for anything they say while conducting official business in Congress.
This protects the freedom of discussion and debate in Congress.
Members can still be punished for simply making false accusations against people verbally or in writing.

74. Review
Now that you have learned what roles and functions members of Congress perform, go back and answer the Chapter Essential Question.
Whose views should members of Congress represent when voting?