1. Endocrine System

2. Glandular epi. exocrine endocrine Endocrine organ Exocrine organ
No ducts
Exocrine organ
ducts
acini
follicle, cord, net
like arranged
cells
Glandular epi.

3. Ways of Secretion

4. Glands can be one of three types
Exocrine – release secretions that are carried within a duct or tube – sweat glands, salivary glands, sebaceous glands
Endocrine – release secretions directly into the blood – thyroid gland, adrenal gland, anterior pituitary gland
Heterocrine – contain both exocrine and endocrine components – pancreas, testis
In addition to the major endocrine glands shown at the left here, there are widely distributed endocrine cells as well as various other tissues in organs (right) throughout the body with endocrine functions. Not shown are adipocytes, which exert important endocrine functions, and the many tissues in which paracrine signaling is important.

5. Steroid-secreting cells Nitrogen-secreting cell
SER; lipid droplet; mitochrondria
Nitrogen-secreting cell
RER; Golgi complex; secreting granules;

6. Thyroid Gland
Follicular cell
follicles
C: parafollicular cell

7. Found at 2nd through 4th cartilages of the trachea
Small gland with four parathyroid glands attached to the posterior surface.
Follicles are the structural unit of the gland.
Follicle consists of a wall of simple cuboidal epithelium cells inclosing a space containing a jelly-like substance called colloid. If the colloid distends the follicles, the epithelial cells can become flattened almost like simple squamous. Colloid combines with iodine to form thyroid hormones – regulate body metabolism.

8. Follicles(simple cuboid/culumnar epi.) + fenestrated capillary
Follicular cell + basal lamina
Follicular cell: T3, T4
Parafollicular cell: calcitonin
Follicular cell

9. Between the follicles are located small groups of parafollicular cells which secrete hormone thyrocalcitonin or often called just calcitonin.
Calcitonin functions to reduce calcium levels in the blood by actively reducing breakdown of bone and inhibiting re-absorption of calcium in digestive system.

10. parafollicular cell

11. Thyroid Gland Abnormalities
Hyperthyroid condition often result of tumor. Can produce disease called Graves syndrome
Hypothyroid condition – cretinism in children and myxedema in adults
Goggle-eyed
Girl 15 with Cretinism
myxedema

12. 肾上腺 Adrenal gland Cord or net like arranged endocrine cells
Blue one: capillary net
Zona: encircling beltlike structure

13. Capsule, cortex, medulla
Cortex: ZG + ZF + ZR+ capillary
Medulla: chromaffin cells + ganglion cell +
central vein + capillary

14. Cortex of adrenal gland
Zona reticularis
Zona glomerulosa
Cortex of adrenal gland

15. Adrenal Cortex consists of three regions: Outer region known as the zona glomerulosa. Theses cells are arranged in rounded clumps and secrete hormones known as mineralcorticoids. The most common mineralcorticoid is aldosterone which helps to control electrolyte and water balance. The next region is known as the zona fasciculata. It consists of columns of cells. It secretes hormone known as glucocorticoids including cortisone and hydrocortisone. These hormones help to regulate glucose metabolism and important in inflammation reactions and stress management. The inner region of the cortex is the zona reticularis. Cells of this region form and network of interlinking cells. Secrete sex hormones mainly androgens or male sex hormones. Usually in small proportions if too many can cause bearded lady.

16. Medulla: chromaffin cells + ganglion cell + central vein + capillary
epinephrine cell, norepinephrine cell
Central vein

17. The cells of the adrenal medulla can
be considered modified sympathetic
postganglionic neurons that have
become secretory cells.

19. Hormones and functions of adrenal gland

20. Function of adrenal gland

21. Iodine deficiency goiter Cushing syndrome
Medical applications
Iodine deficiency goiter
Cushing syndrome

22. Pituitary gland: half for endocrine, another half is the extending of hypothalamus

23. Development of pituitary gland

24. 垂体 Pituitary gland hypothalamus RHs and IHs blood Hypothalamo-
putitary portal
system
hormone
putuitary 垂体
Pituitary gland
Nervous part
Glandular part

25. 下丘脑和垂体 --
最高司令官

27. Pituitary or Hypophysis
Small gland about size of large pea located under brain. Often referred to as the “master gland”. Secretes hormones that regulate other endocrine glands Consists of two major lobes, anterior and posterior separated by intermediate lobe. The larger anterior lobe referred to as the adenohypophysis. This is a highly glandular tissue that produces and secretes numerous hormones. The second smaller posterior lobe is referred to as the neurohypophysis. This is neural tissue that secretes two hormones produced by hypothalmus.

28. The pars distalis :75% of the mass of the hypophysis
The pars distalis :75% of the mass of the hypophysis. Three cell types : + sinusoid
chromophobes (Gr. chroma, color, + phobos, fear)
two types of chromophils (Gr. chroma + philein, to love) called basophils and acidophils .

29. Adenohypophysis lactation period
Cell types in the adenohypophysis are identified as to their staining characteristics
Chromophilic cells include the acidophils which stain with eosin stain and are thus reddish and the basophils which stain with hematoxylin and are thus dark blue/purple colored in hematoxylin/eosin staining.
Chromophobes do not stain with either stain
There are different types of Acidophils that can be separated with very special stains. These can not be separated with H & E stains. They include:
Somatrophs – secrete Growth Hormone
Mammotrophs – secrete prolactin
There are different types of Basophils that can be separated with very special stains. These can not be separated with H & E stains. They include:
Thyrotrophs – secrete Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
Gonadotrophs – secrete Luteinizing (LH) hormone and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
ACTH-secrete adenocorticotrophic hormone regulates adrenal cortex
Chromophobes
lactation period

31. Posterior lobe or Neurohypophysis
Consists mostly of nervous tissue, pituitary cell, herring body Does not produce any hormones but does secrete two hormones produced by the hypothalamus Secretes oxytocin – regulates uterine muscle contraction and mammory glands stimulating milk flow Secretes ADH – Antidiuretic hormone which increases water retention by the kidney

32. The neurosecretions are transported along
the axons and accumulate at their endings
in the pars nervosa. Here they form
下丘脑与神经垂体为一体
structures known as Herring bodies.

33. Pituitary-related disease
Hormone
hypersecretion
hyposecretion GH
gigantism
dwarf（children）
acromegaly
ACTH
TSH
Cushing syndrome
Hyperthyroid condition
No catamenia
---
cretinism
prolactin
FSH
More mammary gland
Reproductive system LH

34. 1. Secretion, chemical modification and storage, reuptake, and digestion of a protein occur in epithelial cells of what endocrine tissue?
a. Neurohypophysis
b. Adrenal medulla
c. Adenohypophysis
d. Thyroid gland
e. Neuroendocrine cells in the duodenum
2. Pregnant women who have begun labor but in whom this process is no longer progressing are often given an IV injection of Pitocin to stimulate uterine contractions and facilitate parturition. Pitocin is a trade name of a hormone produced in what endocrine tissue?
a. Pars distalis
b. Ovarian follicles
c. Pars nervosa
d. Placenta
e. Pars tuberalis
3. Which of the following accurately describes glucocorticoids?
a. Include the steroid hormone aldosterone
b. Are produced in response to stimulation by ACTH
c. Are produced primarily by the zone glomerulosa
d. Typically enhance the immune response
e. Include the steroid hormone DHEA

35. 生殖系统
(Reproductive System)

36. 生殖细胞的分化
精原细胞/初级精母细胞/次级精母细胞/精子细胞/精子

37. 卵子发生
精子发生

39. 精子发生
有丝分裂
减数分裂
精原细胞/初级精母细胞/次级精母细胞/精子细胞/精子

40. Septa extend from this to divide the testis into lobules
Testes
Testes are contained within the scrotal sac or scrotum and is literally outside body.
Within scrotum, the testis (singular) testes (plural) is covered with the layers forming the capsule.
the layer is called the tunica albuginea is composed of dense collagenous fibrous tissue.
The tunica albuginea thickens and protrudes into the testis to form the mediastinum testis.
Septa extend from this to divide the testis into lobules

41. Low magnification of testis showing many seminiferous tubules
tortuous

42. Testes
Proliferating spermatogenic cells are active and produce spermatozoa by spermatogenesis.
Spermatogenic supporting cells called Sertoli or sustentacular cells

43. seminiferous tubules Germinal or seminiferous epi. Sertoli cell
Basement menbrane
Myoid cells
seminiferous tubules
Blood- testis barrier

44. seminiferous tubules
HE staining

45. 个精子/天
个/睾丸
150微米直径
精子发生
spermatogenesis
精子形成
spermiogenesis
30-70厘米长
250米长/睾丸

46. Spermatogenesis
Germ cells comprise a stratified layer of epithelium 4-8 cells deep lining the seminiferous tubule.
As these cells differentiate, they move from the basal area toward the lumen of the seminiferous tubule.
This process of differentiation is called spermatogenesis and takes about 64 days.
The beginning cells are called spermatogia that are found next to the basal lamina.
These cells are diploid and are found in the testis prior to puberty.

47. Primary spermatocytes are located some distance away from the basal lamina
They are much larger and at this point are still diploid cells
They divide by meiosis to produce haploid secondary spermatocytes.
Although the nuclear division is complete, the cytoplasm remains connected.
Secondary spermatocytes division results in the formation of 4 spermatids which are usually still attached by cytoplasm division that is incomplete.
Spermatids lie close to the lumen.
Spermatids then differentiate forming head region and flagellum to form spermatozoa.(tadpole)(spermiogenesis)
mitosis

48. spermiogenesis
Spermiogenesis is a complex process that includes formation of the acrosome (Gr. akron,
extremity, + soma, body), condensation and elongation of the nucleus, development of the
flagellum, and loss of much of the cytoplasm.

49. 精子 spermatoza
形似蝌蚪

50. 受精
fertilization

51. 支持细胞 Stertoli cell 1. Support, protection, and
nutritional regulation of the
developing spermatozoa.
2. Phagocytosis
4.Secretion of ABP(androgen
binding protein).
3.Formation of Blood- testis barrier
5.Production of inhibin B.

52. Blood- testis barrier
Tight junctions between the Sertoli
cells form a barrier to the transport
of large molecules along the space
between Sertoli cells. Thus, the more
advanced stages of spermatogenesis
are protected from blood-borne
products protecting male germ cells
against blood-borne noxious agents.

53. 睾丸间质细胞
（Leydig cell，interstitial cell）

55. 直精小管与睾丸网 Tubuli recti Rete testis Tubuli recti empty into the
rete testis, contained within
the mediastinum, a
thickening of the tunica
albuginea. The rete testis is a
highly anastomotic network
of channels lined with
cuboidal epithelium.

56. 附睾 epididymis Ductuli efferent Ductus epididymidis
Functional muturation of
sperm

57. Ductuli efferent The ductus epididymidis is a single highly
coiled tube. It is lined with pseudostratified
columnar epithelium composed of rounded
basal cells and columnar cells
Ductuli efferent is composed of higher ciliated cell and lower cell interdigitated.
Ductuli efferent

58. 64 days±
14 days±

59. Flow of spematozoa:
Seminiferous tubule---straight tubules---rete testis---efferent ductules----epididymis ductules---vas deferens---ejaculatory duct

60. 1. Which of the following accurately describes spermiogenesis?
a. Occurs before puberty
b. Involves stem cells, meiosis, and spermatogenesis
c. Involves cytodifferentiation of early spermatids
d. Occurs in diploid cells
e. Results in the formation of primary spermatocytes
2. Interstitial cells of Leydig have an important function in male gamete production. Because of this function, which of the following organelles is abundant within these cells?
a. Lysosomes
b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
c. Peroxisomes
d. Polyribosomes
e. Golgi complexes

61. 3. A 29-year-old man presents with testicular pain and a burning sensation during urination. Tests reveal the presence of Neisseria gonorrhea and penicillin is prescribed. Gonorrhea often produces acute or chronic inflammation of the testes and frequently involves the channels that connect the testis to the epididymis. What is the name of these channels?
a. The mediastinum testis
b. lobules
c. Efferent ductules
d. The straight tubules (tubuli recti)
e. The seminiferous tubules

62. 前列腺
prostate

63. The tubuloalveolar glands of the prostate are formed by a cuboidal or a
columnar pseudostratified epithelium.
Prostatic concretions: Small spherical bodies of glycoproteins, and often calcified,