1. Levels of metaphor

2. The issue
image schemas (e.g., Lakoff, 1990, 1993), frames (e.g,, Lakoff, 1996; Kövecses, 2006)), scenes (e.g., Grady, 1997a, b), mental spaces (e.g., Fauconnier and Turner (2002), schemas (e.g., Lakoff and Turner, 1989), and scenarios (e.g., Musolff, 2006, 2016). There are more terms in use (such as model), …
Termonological chaos
Theoretical dilemma

3. Main question:
What is (are) the appropriate conceptual structure / unit (or structures / units) involved in conceptual metaphors?

4. Theoretical background
Image schemas, domains, frames, and mental spaces

5. Image schemas are
directly meaningful preconceptual structures;
highly schematic gestalts;
continuous analogue patterns;
internally structured, consisting of only a few parts.

6. Domains:
“Domain [is] A coherent area of conceptualization relative to which semantic units may be characterized.” (Langacker)
Domain matrix
IMs make domains meaningful

7. Frames:
Less schematic than domains.
Consist of roles.
BODY domain consists of several frames or frames elaborate domains?
Frames are elaborations of the MIND IS BODY metaphor.

8. Mental spaces:
Elaborate frames (are more specific).
Have values, not roles.
Are structured by frames (one or several).

9. Figure 3: The schematicity hierarchy with three major distinctions between the levels

10. Metaphor and structured conceptual experience
Image schemas and metaphor
How can we account for the meaning of abstract concepts?
Abstract concepts and perception-based concepts
Conceptual metaphors link them.
Entire conceptual system is perception-based, that is, EMBODIED.

11. Domain and metaphor:
A domain (matrix) is a huge knowledge structure.
Not all aspects of it are mapped from source to target.
What is selected for the transfer?
Invariance hypothesis
Primary metaphor
Main meaning focus

12. Frames and metaphor:
Frames represent select aspects of domains.
They provide more specific information than domains.
Mappings typically occur between frames.

13. Mental spaces and metaphor
Mental spaces are elaborations of frames.
They are used in online processing.
The metaphorical mental spaces contains values, not roles, and they make use of specific contextual information in particular communicative situations.

14. In conclusion, then, the cognitive linguistic view of metaphor that has been discussed in this book works on three levels: the supraindividual level corresponding to how a given language and culture reflects decontextualized metaphorical patterns, the individual level corresponding to the metaphorical cognitive system as used by individual speakers of a language, and the subindividual level corresponding to universal aspects of various kinds of embodiment. (Kövecses, 2010: 321)

15. Figure 4. Same-level mapping

16. The BUILDING domain as an example
How can we characterize the concept of BUILDING?
Level of image schema:
CONTAINER, VERTICALITY, PART-WHOLE, OBJECT
Level of domain: domain matrix
PHYSICAL OBJECT, SPACE, EXTENSION, LOCATION, SIZE, STRUCTURED OBJECT, MAN-MADE OBJECT, ENCLOSED SPACE, PHYSICAL MATTER, PARTS, SHAPE, COLOR

17. Level of frame:
BUILDING (process): builder, material, building, action of building, etc.
PHYSICAL SUPPORT: foundation, outer shell, strong relationship between them
PARTS OF BUILDING: floors, rooms, basement, attic, chimney, doors, windows
FUNCTION OF BUILDING: people, place for work, place for living, person taking care of building
etc.

18. Level of mental spaces:
A large number of mental spaces can be created using the frames.
E.g.: „John built himself a strong house.”
BUILDING and PHYSICAL SUPPORT frames

19. theories (and arguments) are buildings
Is that the foundation for your theory?
The theory needs more support.
The argument is shaky.
We need some more facts or the argument will fall apart.
We need to construct a strong argument for that.
I haven't figured out yet what the form of the argument will be.

20. Here are some more facts to shore up the theory.
We need to buttress the theory with solid arguments.
The theory will stand or fall on the strength of that argument.
The argument collapsed.
They exploded his latest theory.
We will show that theory to be without foundation.
So far we have put together only the framework of the theory.
(Lakoff and Johnson, 1980)

21. theories are buildings
Increasingly, scientific knowledge is constructed by small numbers of specialized workers.
McCarthy demolishes the romantic myth of the Wild West.
She lay back for a few moments contemplating the ruins of her idealism and her innocence.
Don’t be tempted to skip the first sections of your programme, because they are the foundations on which the second half will be built.
. . . the advance that laid the foundations for modern science.
Our view, he said, is that these claims are entirely without foundation.
My faith was rocked to its foundations.
The second half of the chapter builds on previous discussion of change and differentiation in home ownership.
(Deignan, 1995)

22. (1) the aspect of the construction of a theory (as exemplified by build, construct, put together);
(2) abstract structure (as exemplified by (without) foundation, groundwork, framework, build on, lay the foundations, collapse, demolish, shore up, buttress); and
(3) abstract stability or lastingness (as exemplified by strong, solid, shaky, shore up, buttress, fall apart, in ruins, rock to its foundations, stand or fall).

23. „Meaning foci”
„Wide scope”
Mappings:
(1) building  creation or construction of a complex abstract system
(2) physical structure of the building  abstract structure of a complex abstract system
(3) physical strength (of the structure to stand)  abstract stability/lastingness (of the complex abstract system)

24. BUILDING at the individual level
In the case of actual online metaphorical conceptualization
Frame completion (nonconventionally used elements):
“These facts are the bricks and mortar of my theory” (L&J, 1980)
Extension to nonconventionally used other frames:
“His theory has thousands of little rooms and long, winding corridors" (L&J, 1980)

25. “We are delighted that Germany’s unification takes place under the European roof.” (Documentation by the Federal press- and information office, Bonn)
“At the moment, the German occupants of the first floor apartment in the ‘European house’ seem to think that foreigners from outside the continent should be content with living in the rubbish bin.”
“What does he [Chancellor Kohl] need this house for, after so many years as Chancellor? – Well, it’s obvious, he wants to become the caretaker.” (Die Zeit, May 16, 1997)
“[the European house is] a building without fire-escapes: no escape if it goes wrong” (The Guardian, May 2, 1998)
“[it is a] burning building with no exits” (The Times, May 20, 1998)
(Musolff, 2001)

26. Supraindividual level:
building (as process) and (physical) support for establishing mappings between the building domain and the target domain of complex abstract systems (THE EUROPEAN UNION IS A BUILDING)
Individual level:
parts of the building and the function of building

28. Resulting conceptual metaphors
IS level:
abstract complex systems are objects
abstract complex systems are vertical objects
abstract complex systems are container objects
abstract complex systems are whole objects with parts
DL level:
a(n abstract complex) system is a physical object (building)
the creation of the system is the physical creation of the building
the structure of the system is the physical structure of the building
the parts of the system are parts of the physical object (building)

29. Resulting conceptual metaphors
FR level:
the construction of the system is building (as process)
logical support is physical support
submetaphor:
the stability of the building is the strength of physical support
MS level:
(in the form of particular examples:)
mary building a career is mary building a house
john’s life without a foundation is john’s house without a foundation

30. Metaphorical expressions at different levels
the word inside, as in “inside the system,” relates to the image schematic level (the container image schema)
the word structure (when used metaphorically) is based on a mapping at the domain level
the word builder in the phrase “the chief builder of the organization” is related to the building (as process) frame
In other words, metaphorically used words, just like their corresponding conceptual metaphors, can be found at various levels of schematicity.

32. What happens at the individual level?
use metaphors online
use them in a fully contextualized way
use them with specific socio-pragmatic functions
add emotional value to them
create novel metaphors
create them as a result of contextual influences
use individual metaphors
add lexical elaborations of frames
perform conceptual integration
mix metaphors in the same discourse
and more (see, e.g., Semino, 2008).

33. Several of the uses at this level can occur together:
“What does he [Chancellor Kohl] need this house for, after so many years as Chancellor? – Well, it’s obvious, he wants to become the caretaker.” (Die Zeit, May 16, 1997; Musolff 2001)
using metaphor online
creating a new metaphor
Adding emotional value to the metaphor

34. Consequences of this view of metaphor
Methodological issues
Relationship to other figurative devices
Discourse-based study of metaphor
Etc.