1. Module 2
Psychology & Science

2. Perceptual and Cognitive
Levels
What is studied?
Genetic
Gene function, heritability, twin and adoption studies
Neurochemical
Neurotransmitters, hormones animal studies, pharmaceutical drug studies,
Brain systems
Neuroanatomical structures, animal studies, brain imaging
Behavioral
Observable actions, responses, physical movements
Perceptual and Cognitive
Thinking, decision-making, language, memory, motivation, beliefs
Social
Situations, context, cultural norms, group decision-making, group behavior
Individual
Personality traits, sex differences, human development

3. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Advantages of scientific method scientific Method
approach of gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are minimized

4. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Conducting Research: seven rules Rule 1: Ask
Rule 2: Identify
Rule 3: Choose
Rule 4: Assign
Rule 5: Manipulate
Rule 6: Measure
Rule 7: Analyze

8. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 1: Ask hypothesis
educated guess about some phenomenon stated in precise, concrete language to rule out any confusion or error in the meaning of its terms

9. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 2: Identify
independent variable
a treatment or something that the researcher controls or manipulates
dependent variable
one or more of the subjects’ behaviors that are used to measure the potential effects of the treatment or independent variable

10. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 3: Choose Rule 4: Assign random selection
each participant in a sample population has an equal chance of being selected for the experiment
Rule 4: Assign
experimental group
those who receive the treatment
control group
participants who undergo all the same procedures as the experimental participants except that the control participants do not receive the treatment

11. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 5: Manipulate Rule 6: Measure
double blind procedure
neither participants nor researchers know which group is receiving which treatment
Rule 6: Measure
by manipulating the treatment so that the experimental group receives a different treatment than the control group, researchers are able to measure how the independent variable (treatment) affects those behaviors that have been selected as the dependent variables

12. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Rule 7: Analyze
statistical procedures
used to determine whether differences observed in dependent variables (behaviors) are due to independent variables (treatment) or to error or chance occurrence

13. ANSWERING QUESTIONS Researchers use all five methods Survey Case Study
Experiment
Observation
Correlational Comparison
each method provides a different kind of information

14. SURVEYS Survey way to obtain information by asking many individuals
answer a fixed set of questions about particular subjects

15. SURVEYS Disadvantages Advantage information can contain errors
results can be biased
Advantage
efficient way to obtain much information from a large number of people

16. CASE STUDY
Case study
an in-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems of a single individual

17. CASE STUDY Disadvantage Advantage
detailed information about a particular person may not apply to others
Advantage
detailed information allows greater understanding of a particular person’s life

18. OBSERVATION Naturalistic: Advantage Disadvantage - Reactivity
Performing an observation in a natural setting, sometimes hiding from the subjects being studied
Advantage
Often yields genuine data, since subjects are unaware of study
Disadvantage
- Reactivity
- Observer Bias

19. OBSERVATION

20. EXPERIMENT Experiment
a method for identifying cause-and-effect relationships by following a set of rules and guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, and chance occurrences.

22. EXPERIMENT Disadvantage Advantage
information obtained in one experimental situation or laboratory setting may not apply to other situations
Advantage
has the greatest potential for identifying cause-and-effect relationships with less error and bias than either surveys or case studies

23. Measures of Central Tendency
When studying and comparing statistics, often times you want to give what is common, typical, average etc. To do this you use mean, median, and the mode.
Mean: the arithmetic average of all the individual measurements in a distribution

24. Measures of Central Tendency
Mean: the arithmetic average of all the individual measurements in a distribution
1. $ 000(zero) 8. $80,000
2. $ 5, $100,000
3. $10, $150,000
4. $20, $200,000
5. $40, $400,000
6. $40, $10,000,000
7. $40,000
Add together and divide by 13 = $11,085,000; divide this by 13 and you get the mean of $852,

25. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: figure that occurs most frequently in a given set of data.
1. $ 000(zero) 8. $80,000
2. $ 5, $100,000
3. $10, $150,000
4. $20, $200,000
5. $40, $400,000
6. $40, $10,000,000
7. $40,000
In this example it is $40,000.

26. Measures of Central Tendency
Median: the middle of any set of figures.
1. $ 000(zero) 8. $80,000
2. $ 5, $100,000
3. $10, $150,000
4. $20, $200,000
5. $40, $400,000
6. $40, $10,000,000
7. $40,000
In this example, the median would be $40,000.

27. CORRELATION Correlation Correlation coefficient
an association or relationship between the occurrence of two or more events (a.k.a. a correlational relationship)
Correlation coefficient
a number that indicates the strength of a relationship between two or more events: the closer the number is to –1.00 or +1.00, the greater is the strength of the relationship

28. Correlational Research
Another tool for the researcher
 1) As a first step prior to experimentation
2) When causations cannot be found  3) When experiments cannot be conducted (for ethical or practical reasons)

29. Correlational Research
Types of correlational studies
1) Observational Research
 e.g., class attendance and grades 2)  Survey Research
 e.g., living together and divorce rates 3) Archival Research
 e.g., violence and economics

30. Correlational Research
Example:   Why are children aggressive?
 Hypothesis: aggression is a learned behavior as a result of modeling.
 Test:  look for associations between aggressive behavior and . .

31. Correlational Research
Interpreting Correlations
Scores range from -1 to +1
-1, negative relationship example of a negative :  drinking in college and GPA  
0, no relationship example of a near zero :  hair length and GPA
  +1, positive relationship example of a positive : GPA and scores on SAT

35. CORRELATION Perfect positive correlation coefficient
+1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal increase in a second event
Positive correlation coefficient
indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, increase
increases from to indicate a strengthening of the relationship between the occurrence of two events

37. CORRELATION Zero correlation Negative correlation coefficient
indicates that there is no relationship between the occurrence of one event and the occurrence of a second event
Negative correlation coefficient
indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, decrease
-0.01 to indicates a strengthening in the relationship of one event increasing and the other decreasing

38. CORRELATION Perfect negative correlation coefficient
-1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal decrease in a second event
correlations such as –1.00 are virtually never found in applied psychological research

39. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
What is the best technique for answering a question?
Questionnaires and interviews
Laboratory experiments
Standardized tests
Animal models

40. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
Interview
technique for obtaining information by asking questions, ranging from open-ended to highly structured, about a subject’s behaviors and attitudes, usually in a one-on-one situation
Questionnaire
technique for obtaining information by asking subjects to read a list of written questions and check off specific answers

41. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
Laboratory experiments
techniques to gather information about the brain, genes, or behavior with the lease error and bias by using a controlled environment that allows careful observation and measurement
Standardized tests
technique to obtain information by administering a psychological test that has been given to hundreds of people and shown to reliably measure thought patterns, personality traits, emotions, or behaviors

42. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
Animal Models
involves examining or manipulating some behavioral, genetic, or physiological factor that closely approximates some human problem, disease, or condition

43. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
Choosing research settings
Naturalistic setting
Laboratory setting

44. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
Naturalistic setting
relatively normal environment in which researchers gather information by observing individuals’ behaviors without attempting to change or control the situation
Laboratory setting
involves studying individuals under systematic and controlled conditions, with many of the real-world influences eliminated

45. ETHICS

46. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS
Concerns about being a subject
human and animal
Code of ethics
the American Psychological Association publishes a code of ethics and conduct for psychologists to follow when doing research, counseling, teaching, and related activities

47. APPLICATION: RESEARCH ETHICS
Informed Consent
Subject must have a reasonable understanding of the research, voluntarily agree to take part and be aware of any possible harm.
Safety
Mental and Physical safety must be the top priority, a research subject should never be in danger.

48. APPLICATION: RESEARCH ETHICS
Role of deception
one way that researchers control for participants’ expectations is to use bogus procedures or instructions that prevent participants from learning the experiment’s true purpose
Debriefed
If a subject is deceived they must be informed of the truth as soon as possible

52. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS
Ethics of animal research
How many animals are used in research?
18 to 22 million animals are used each year in biomedical research
Are research animals mistreated?
Of the millions of animals used in research, only a few cases of animal mistreatment have been confirmed.

53. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS
Ethics of animal research
Is the use of animals justified?
researchers are currently using animals to study epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, fetal alcohol syndrome, schizophrenia, AIDS, and transplantation of brain tissue
none of which is possible with human subjects

54. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS
Ethics of animal research
Who checks on the use of animals in research?
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Universities hire veterinarians
Universities have animal subject committees

55. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS
Ethics of animal research
How do we strike a balance?
many experts in the scientific, medical, and mental health communities believe that the conscientious and responsible use of animals in research is justified and should continue

56. USE OF PLACEBOS Placebo Placebo effect
intervention, such as taking a pill, receiving and injection, or undergoing an operation, that resembles medical therapy but which in fact, has no medical effects
Placebo effect
change in the patient’s illness that is attributable to an imagined treatment rather than to a medical treatment

57. USE OF PLACEBOS
researchers believe that placebos work by reducing tension and distress and by creating powerful self-fulfilling prophecies
individuals think and behave as if the drug, actually a placebo, is effective