1. To know what is meant by labelling.
Internal Factors
Learning Objectives
To know what is meant by labelling.
To be able to apply labelling theories to your knowledge and understanding.
To be able to evaluate differences between working-class and middle-class children as a result of labelling.

2. Social Class Differences in Education:
Internal/ Inside School Explanations
Labelling / Interactionist Theories:
These theories suggest that the W/C are disadvantages within education due to the processes within, & organisation of, the education system itself. The focus here is on the ‘Interactions’ between pupils are their teachers & their institutions, and how these interactions can determine whether a pupil is successful or not.

3. Rutter (1979) Fifteen Thousand Hours: Secondary Schools & their Effects on Children
Rutter suggests that schools can actually make a difference between the success or failure of an individual. He argues that there are specific factors that make schools ‘good’ – or of course ‘bad’. He draws particular attention to the role that teachers have play……
How far do you agree with Rutter? Are there any points you agree with/ disagree with/ think should be included?
Positive features of schools include:
> Teachers are well prepared for lesson.
> Teachers have high expectations of pupils.
Why might M/C teachers be more likely to adhere to Rutter’s ‘ideal teacher’ model?
> Mixed ability classes – high ability lead by example
> Teachers place more emphasis on praise & reward than punishment & blame.
> Teachers should generate an ethos which reflects these points.
There is further evidence that teachers really do make the difference between the success & failure of their students…..
> Teachers lead by example e.g. punctuality.
> Teachers show a genuine interest
> Teachers treat pupils as responsible people.

4. Link to Methods (Methods in Context)
Labelling Theory:
To someone is to attach a meaning or definition to definition to them. In this case teachers may label students as ‘bright’, ‘hardworking’ & ‘able’ or perhaps ‘Thick’, ‘Troublemaker’ & ‘Unable’.
LABEL
There is evidence to suggest that teachers pass judgement on their students based on pre-existing of what constitutes the ‘Ideal Pupil’ –
this is often linked to the class-background of their students.
STEREOTYPES
Sociologists are interested on how students & teachers react to these labels & the impact they have on educational achievement.
Becker (1971) Labelling in Secondary Schools
Hargreaves suggests that labelling leads to certain students being given imaginary halos which stay with them throughout their educational career. Future interactions with teachers are based on these halos – The Halo Effect
Using Interviews of 60 high school teachers , Becker found that teacher stereotyped students based on their work, conduct & appearance.
Teachers saw M/C children as the closest to their stereotype of the ‘Ideal Pupil’ & W/C children as the furthest away from this ‘Ideal.
Link to Methods (Methods in Context)

5. Amelia Hempel-Jorgensen (2009)
More recent study of 2 English primary schools found that notions vary according to social class make up of the school.
By contrast, the largely middle-class Rowan primary school had very few discipline problems and here the ideal pupil was defined by personality and academic ability, rather than behaviour.
In the largely working-class Aspen primary school, where staff said discipline was a major problem, the ideal pupil was defined as quiet, passive & obedient – children were defined in terms of behaviour, not ability.
Interviews in 9 English state Secondary schools, they found teachers ‘normalised’ the underachievement of W/C pupils, seemed unconcerned and felt they could do little or nothing to overcome it.
Dunne & Gazeley (2008) – argue that schools persistently produce working-class underachievement because of the labels and assumptions of teachers.
Major reason for this difference - teachers’ belief in the role of pupil’s home backgrounds.
They way teachers explained and dealt with underachievement itself constructed class differences in levels of attainment.

6. Cicourel & Kitsuse (1963) Counsellors & Labelling
Found that counsellors assessed students largely on their social class and/or race. Counsellors play a large role in judging students’ suitability for courses.
M/C students tended to be referred to higher ability courses & academic subjects.
Rist (1970) Labelling in Primary Schools
Labelling begins at the very start of a child’s ‘Educational Career’.
Studying an American Kindergarten, Rist found that teachers used information about their pupils’ home backgrounds (as well as judging their appearance) to place pupils in separate groups.
The other 2 groups were named ‘Cardinals & ‘Clowns’. These were seated further away from the teacher, given lower level reading books & less attention – these were generally W/C pupils.
Each group was asked to sit at different tables . The teacher labelling ‘the fast learners’ as ‘Tigers’ & seated them nearer to her & showed them more encouragement– these students tended to come from M/C backgrounds.

7. Keddie (1971) Unequal Access to Classroom Knowledge (Status as knowledge)
Keddie found that teachers do not distribute knowledge evenly within the classroom but are more likely to give high ability students ‘High Status Knowledge’ whilst lower ability students are more likely to be given ‘Low Status Knowledge’:
Top Ability Groups (Majority M/C)
Low Ability Groups (Majority W/C)
Descriptive
Abstract
commonsense
Theoretical
Basic
Detailed
Dumbed Down
Full Curriculum

8. The Self Fulfilling Prophecy
All of these factors that you have considered are cumulative and lead onto even more problems. It is important to examine how pupils might react to these issues.
The Self Fulfilling Prophecy
One of the most important concepts you will need to learn is:
This is prediction that comes true purely on the basis of it being made in the first place.
Teacher labels a pupil & makes predictions about them in relation to the label…….
Stage 1
The teacher interacts with the pupil based on this label & prediction……
Stage 2
There is research evidence of the Self-fulfilling Prophecy…..
The pupil internalises the label, prediction & teacher’ expectations & it becomes part of their self-concept. The pupil becomes the label & acts accordingly to the prediction & this ‘fulfils’ the original ‘Prophecy’ (Prediction)
Stage 3

9. Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) Teacher’s Expectations & the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Told a school that they had a new ability-based test that could be use with pupils to identify those that would ‘spurt’ ahead (high ability) - the teachers believed this.
All pupils were tested & then R&J randomly selected 20% of them & told the school (again a lie) that these pupil were identified as ‘Spurters’.
A year later it was found that 47% of these pupils had made ‘significant progress’ when compared to the remaining 53% of pupils.
R&J suggested that the teachers interacted with the ‘Spurter’ pupils differently & conveyed their high expectation on to them – in turn, these pupils internalised these views & performed better than the ‘Non-Spurters’,
The Pygmalion Effect
In Greek Mythology, a sculptor named Pygmalion falls in love with his own statue after he is constantly reminded of how beautiful & life-like it is i.e. He internalises these notions & begins to believe them.
This demonstrates the self-fulfilling prophecy; simply by accepting the prediction they some children would spurt ahead, the teachers bough it about. The fact that the children were selected at random strongly suggests that if teachers believe a pupil to be of a certain type, they can actually make him or her into that type.

12. Starter Task
Write a summary sheet about what sociologists suggest labelling does to achievement of students and how they suggest it has an impact. You have 8 minutes.

13. Streaming

14. Hargreaves (1976) Setting, Streaming & Anti-School Subcultures.
Another response to stereotyping, labelling, teacher expectations & the halo-effect is the formation of Anti/ Counter-School Subcultures.
Hargreaves draws our attention to the possible negative effects of ‘Setting & streaming’.
Stream 1
Eng.
Mat.
Sci.
Geo.
Streaming
Stream 3
Stream 2
Set 1
Set 2
Set 3
Eng.
Mat.
Sci.
Geo. X
Setting
How might stereotyping, labelling & the self-fulfilling prophecy be linked to Setting & Streaming?
Why might Streaming be worse for pupils than Setting?

15. Thinking harder
Streaming involves separating children into different ability groups called ‘streams’. Each ability group is then taught separately from the others for all subjects. Studies show that the self-fulfilling prophecy is particularly likely to occur when children are streamed.
Becker showed that teachers do not usually see working-class children as ideal pupils. They tend to see them as lacking ability and have low expectation of them. As a result, working-class children are more likely to find themselves put in a lower stream.
Once streamed, it is usually difficult to move up to a higher stream; children are more or less locked into their teachers’ low expectations of them. Children in the lower streams ‘get the message’ that their teachers’ have written them off as no-hopers.
This creates a self-fulfilling prophecy in which the pupils live up to their teachers expectations by underachieving. For example, Douglas found that children placed in a lower stream at age 8 had suffered a decline in their IQ score by age 11.
By contrast, middle-class pupils tend to benefit from streaming. They are likely to be placed in higher streams, reflecting teachers’ view of them as the ideal pupils. As a result, they develop a more positive self-concept, gain confidence, work harder and improve their grades. Douglas found that children placed in higher streams at age 8 had improved their IQ score by age 11.
A study of 2 London secondary schools by David Gillborn and Deborah Youdell (2001) shows how teachers use stereotypical notions of ‘ability’ to stream pupils. They found that teachers are less likely to see working-class (and black) pupils to have ability. As a result, these pupils are more likely to be placed in lower streams and entered for lower-tier GCSEs. This denies them the knowledge and opportunity needed to gain good grades and widens the class gap in achievement.
They linked streaming to the policy of publishing exam league tables. Thee rank each school according to its exam performance. Schools need to achieve a good league table position if they are to attract pupils and funding. Publishing league tables is what Gillborn and Youdell call an ‘A-to-C economy’ in schools. This is a system in which schools focus their time, effort and resources on those pupils they see having the potential to get C grades and boost the schools league table position.

16. A) Those who will pass either way
Gillborn & Youdell (2004) Rationing Education – ‘The A-C Economy’ (Triage).
Due to pressure form league tables & formula funding, school/ colleges are likely to ‘Ration’ their time & resources towards the most able pupils – this creates an ‘Education Triage’ – a system where pupils are separated into 3 groups (A-C Economy) (this is a model used by the armed forces when rationing medical care in war zones):
Less resources & time
Pupils
Triage System
A) Those who will pass either way
B) Border line Cases
C) Hopeless cases
(Stereotypically M/C)
(Stereotypically W/C)
A lot of resources & time
Less resources & time
This system is based heavily on stereotypes & presumptions about pupils based on their appearance & perceived ability & thus the W/C are neglected.

17. Educational Triage
Gillborn and Youdell call this process of streaming ‘educational triage’ (triage – means sorting).
They argue that the A-C economy produced an educational triage and schools categorise pupils into 3 types.
Teachers do this using a stereotypical view of working-class (and black) pupils lacking ability. This produces a self-fulfilling prophecy and failure.

18. Educational Triage

19. Educational triage
The need to gain good league table positions drives the triage and becomes the basis for streaming.
Teachers’ beliefs about working-class pupils are used to segregate them into lower ability streams where they get less support, attention and resources. This results in lower achievement.

21. Pupil subcultures What is a pupil subculture?
A group of pupils who share similar values and behaviour patterns.
Why do pupil subcultures occur?
Due to the way they have been labelled and as a reaction to streaming.

22. Lacey (1970) Hightown Grammar.
Hargreaves highlights how damaging factors (such as stereotyping, labelling, SFP & Setting & Streaming) prevents W/C pupils from achieving status & rewards within the education system.
W/C pupils that the Value System of the school is contradictory in terms of their own progress, options, status & progression. This creates frustration & results in W/C pupils forming ‘Resistant Anti-School Subcultures’ that directly oppose the values that the education system promotes.
Status & Reward can thus be achieved through an ‘Alternative’ set of values set out by the resistant group (Peer Group Status)
Hyman &Sugarman (1967/70): W/C Subcultures (Collectivism)
Willis (1977) ‘learning to labour’.
Lacey (1970) Hightown Grammar.
Lacey attempts to explain why subcultures form through 2 key concepts:
Differentiation:
Refers to the way that teachers categorise or ‘Differentiate’ between pupils according to stereotypes about ability, appearance etc.
Setting & Streaming are forms of differentiation as well as ‘Foundation’ & ‘Higher’ tier exam differentiation.
Polarisation:
This is way that pupils respond to differentiation – moving towards 2 extremes (polar opposites)…………….

23. The Anti-School Subculture. The Pro-School Subculture.
Polarisation leads to 2 subcultural responses:
The Anti-School Subculture.
The Pro-School Subculture.
> Associated with the W/C.
> Associated with the M/C.
> Negative Stereotypes
> Positive Stereotypes.
> Negative Labels.
> Positive Labels.
> No ‘Halos’.
> ‘Halos’
> Low Sets & Streams.
> High Sets & Streams.
> High Status Knowledge & More Attention.
> Low Status Knowledge & Less Attention.
> Low Expectations.
> High Expectations
> Positive Self-fulfilling Prophecy.
> Negative Self-fulfilling Prophecy
> Cooled Down.
> Warmed Up.
Hargreaves suggests that ‘Pro-School’ pupils are ‘Warmed Up’ by teachers i.e. motivated & encouraged, whilsts ‘Anti-School’ pupils are ‘Cooled Down’ i.e. Discouraged & Alienated

24. Ball (1981) Beachside Comprehensive (Abolishing streaming)
Ball supports Hargreaves’ notion that Streaming (or Banding as it is also known) can have negative consequences for pupils.
In his study of ‘Beachside Comprehensive’, he found that as streaming/ banding was fazed out (& replaced with mixed ability teaching), the ‘Polarisation’ of pupils into subcultures gradually lessened also.
Despite this, Ball still found that teachers were likely to differentiate between pupils according to their social class (seeing M/C pupils as more co-operative). This reflected in exam results – showing how the SFP might still have been created.
The positive labelling was seen in their better exam results, suggesting the self-fulfilling prophecy had occurred.
Since Ball’s study, there has been a trend towards more streaming and towards a variety of types of school, some of which have a more academic curriculum than others.
Remember it is important to be able to evaluate these ‘Labelling’ / ‘Interactionist’ arguments……………

25. Peter Woods (1979) argues there are other responses possible to labelling & streaming
Ingratiation – being the ‘teacher’s pet’
Ritualism – going through the motions and staying out of trouble
Retreatism – daydreaming and mucking about
Rebellion – outright rejection of everything that school stands for
Pupils are not committed to any one response permanently. Movement between different responses is possible and acting differently in different lessons with different teachers.
Criticisms of labelling theory
Marxists say that labelling theory ignores the wider power within labelling that takes place. Labelling theory tends to blame teachers for labelling pupils but fails to explain why they do so.
Marxists argue that labels are not merely a result of teachers’ prejudices, but stem from the fact that teachers work in a system that prodcues class divisions.

26. Pupil class identities and the school
Sociologists are also interested in how pupil class identities that are formed outside of school interact with the school and its values to produce educational success and failure.
Louise Archer et al (2010) focussed on the interactions between working-class pupils’ identities and school, and how this produces underachievement. To understand this they focus on the concept of habitus by Bourdieu (1984).

27. Habitus
‘Dispositions’ or learned, taken for granted ways of thinking, being and acting that are shared by classes.
Includes tastes about lifestyle, preferences, outlook on life, expectations and what is normal for ‘people like us’.
A groups’ habitus is formed as a response to its position in the class structure.
Middle class power is able to define their habitus as better than WC and impose it on the education system. This results in schools putting higher value on MC habitus.
Linked to Bourdieu’s cultural capital – because schools have MC habitus MC pupils have an advantage.

28. Symbolic capital and symbolic violence
Symbolic capital – because MC pupils have been raised with MC habitus they gain status and recognition from the school.
Symbolic violence – withholding of symbolic capital because the school devalues WC habitus as their tastes and preferences are deemed worthless.
Clash between WC and schools’ MC habitus – therefore WC may experience school as alien and unnatural.

29. ‘Nike’ identities
Read the information on P33 and answer these questions:
How did symbolic violence lead to ‘Nike’ identities?
What was ‘social suicide’?
How did this lead to conflict in schools?
How did Nike styles play a part in the rejection of higher education?
According to Archer, why do WC pupils invest in ‘Nike’ identities?

30. Task
Complete the sheet on other factors that affect working class achievement and what sociologists said about them by using the text book pages
Working class identity and educational success
Class identity and self-exclusions

31. External/ Outside School Explanations
Final Word on Social Class & Achievement…….
Remember that it is important to look at the link between External/ Outside School (Cultural Deprivation) Theories and Internal/ Inside School (Labelling/ Interactionist) Theories…….
Interactionist / Labelling Theories:
Cultural Deprivation Theories:
External/ Outside School Explanations
Internal/ Inside School Explanations
> Socio-Linguistics (Language Codes)
> Material Deprivation (Inc. Poverty, Environment & Work).
> Cultural Attitudes, Beliefs & Views
> Stereotyping, Labelling & the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
> Setting & Streaming
> Pupil Subcultures
> Unequal Access to Classroom Knowledge
> ‘Wider’ Educational Policies
> Cultural Capital
They can also be used as a critique of one another! i.e. COMPARE & CONTRAST

32. Links between internal and external
Select a card from each of the sets in front of you.
Discuss on your table how the 2 factors interrelate in affecting a pupils’ educational achievement.