13-1 Changing the Living World

13-1 Changing the Living World
Photo credit: ©Anup Shah/Dembinsky Photo Associates Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall
Selective Breeding Selective Breeding Selective breeding allows only those organisms with desired characteristics to produce the next generation. Nearly all domestic animals and most crop plants have been produced by selective breeding. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Selective Breeding Humans use selective breeding to pass desired traits on to the next generation of organisms. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Selective Breeding Hybridization Hybridization is the crossing of dissimilar individuals to bring together the best of both organisms. Hybrids, the individuals produced by such crosses, are often hardier than either of the parents. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Selective Breeding Inbreeding Inbreeding is the continued breeding of individuals with similar characteristics. Inbreeding helps to ensure that the characteristics that make each breed unique will be preserved. Serious genetic problems can result from excessive inbreeding. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Increasing Variation Breeders increase the genetic variation in a population by inducing mutations. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Increasing Variation Mutations occur spontaneously, but breeders can increase the mutation rate by using radiation and chemicals. Breeders can often produce a few mutants with desirable characteristics that are not found in the original population. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Increasing Variation Producing New Kinds of Bacteria Introducing mutations has allowed scientists to develop hundreds of useful bacterial strains, including bacteria that can clean up oil spills. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Increasing Variation Producing New Kinds of Plants Mutations in some plant cells produce cells that have double or triple the normal number of chromosomes. This condition, known as polyploidy, produces new species of plants that are often larger and stronger than their diploid relatives. Polyploidy in animals is usually fatal. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

13-2 Manipulating DNA Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

The Tools of Molecular Biology
Scientists use different techniques to: extract DNA from cells cut DNA into smaller pieces identify the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule make unlimited copies of DNA Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

In genetic engineering, biologists make changes in the DNA code of a living organism. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

DNA Extraction DNA can be extracted from most cells by a simple chemical procedure. The cells are opened and the DNA is separated from the other cell parts. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Cutting DNA Most DNA molecules are too large to be analyzed, so biologists cut them into smaller fragments using restriction enzymes. Which type of molecule is an enzyme? Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Each restriction enzyme cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides. Molecular biologists have developed different techniques that allow them to study and change DNA molecules. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences. This drawing shows how restriction enzymes are used to edit DNA. The restriction enzyme EcoR I, for example, finds the sequence CTTAAG on DNA. Then, the enzyme cuts the molecule at each occurrence of CTTAAG. The cut ends are called sticky ends because they may “stick” to complementary base sequences by means of hydrogen bonds. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Separating DNA In gel electrophoresis, DNA fragments are placed at one end of a porous gel, and an electric voltage is applied to the gel. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Gel electrophoresis is used to separate DNA fragments. First, restriction enzymes cut DNA into fragments. The DNA fragments are then poured into wells on a gel, which is similar to a thick piece of gelatin. An electric voltage moves the DNA fragments across the gel. Because longer fragments of DNA move through the gel more slowly, they do not migrate as far across the gel as shorter fragments of DNA. Based on size, the DNA fragments make a pattern of bands on the gel. These bands can then be compared with other samples of DNA. Gel Electrophoresis Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

First, restriction enzymes cut DNA into fragments. The DNA fragments are poured into wells on a gel. Gel electrophoresis is used to separate DNA fragments. First, restriction enzymes cut DNA into fragments. The DNA fragments are then poured into wells on a gel, which is similar to a thick piece of gelatin. An electric voltage moves the DNA fragments across the gel. Because longer fragments of DNA move through the gel more slowly, they do not migrate as far across the gel as shorter fragments of DNA. Based on size, the DNA fragments make a pattern of bands on the gel. These bands can then be compared with other samples of DNA. Gel Electrophoresis Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

An electric voltage is applied to the gel. The smaller the DNA fragment, the faster and farther it will move across the gel. Gel electrophoresis is used to separate DNA fragments. First, restriction enzymes cut DNA into fragments. The DNA fragments are then poured into wells on a gel, which is similar to a thick piece of gelatin. An electric voltage moves the DNA fragments across the gel. Because longer fragments of DNA move through the gel more slowly, they do not migrate as far across the gel as shorter fragments of DNA. Based on size, the DNA fragments make a pattern of bands on the gel. These bands can then be compared with other samples of DNA. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Gel electrophoresis is used to separate DNA fragments. First, restriction enzymes cut DNA into fragments. The DNA fragments are then poured into wells on a gel, which is similar to a thick piece of gelatin. An electric voltage moves the DNA fragments across the gel. Because longer fragments of DNA move through the gel more slowly, they do not migrate as far across the gel as shorter fragments of DNA. Based on size, the DNA fragments make a pattern of bands on the gel. These bands can then be compared with other samples of DNA. Gel Electrophoresis Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Using the DNA Sequence Making Copies Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique that allows biologists to make copies of genes. Small amounts of DNA can be multiplied making it easier to analyze. Made possible by an enzyme found in a bacterium living in hot springs in Yellow Stone National Park. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

13-3 Cell Transformation Recombinant DNA Host Cell DNA Target gene Modified Host Cell DNA Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Transforming Bacteria
During transformation, a cell takes in DNA from outside the cell. The external DNA becomes a component of the cell's DNA. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Foreign DNA is first joined to a small, circular DNA molecule known as a plasmid. Plasmids are found naturally in some bacteria and have been very useful for DNA transfer. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

The plasmid has a genetic marker—a gene that makes it possible to distinguish bacteria that carry the plasmid (and the foreign DNA) from those that don't. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

During transformation, a cell incorporates DNA from outside the cell into its own DNA. One way to use bacteria to produce human growth hormone is to insert a human gene into bacterial DNA. The new combination of genes is then returned to a bacterial cell. The bacterial cell containing the gene replicates over and over. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Transforming Plant Cells
If transformation is successful, the recombinant DNA is integrated into one of the chromosomes of the cell. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

In nature, a bacterium exists that produces tumors in plant cells. Researchers can inactivate the tumor-producing gene found in this bacterium and insert a piece of foreign DNA into the plasmid. The recombinant plasmid can then be used to infect plant cells. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

When their cell walls are removed, plant cells in culture will sometimes take up DNA on their own. DNA can also be injected directly into some cells. Cells transformed by either procedure can be cultured to produce adult plants. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Inside plant cell, Agrobacterium inserts part of its DNA into host cell chromosome. Agrobacterium tumefaciens Gene to be transferred Cellular DNA Recombinant plasmid The bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens can be used to introduce foreign DNA into plant cells. If the transformation is successful, the DNA will be integrated into one of the cell’s chromosomes. Complete plant generated from transformed cell. Plant cell colonies Transformed bacteria introduce plasmids into plant cells. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Transforming Animal Cells
Many egg cells are large enough that DNA can be directly injected into the nucleus. Enzymes may help to insert the foreign DNA into the chromosomes of the injected cell. DNA molecules used for transformation of animal and plant cells contain marker genes. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

DNA molecules can be constructed with two ends that will sometimes recombine with specific sequences in the host chromosome. The host gene normally found between those two sequences may be lost or replaced with a new gene. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Recombinant DNA Recombinant DNA replaces target gene Flanking sequences match host Target gene Recombinant DNA can replace a gene in an animal’s genome. The ends of the recombinant DNA recombine with sequences in the host cell DNA. When the recombinant DNA is inserted into the target location, the host cell’s original gene is lost or knocked out of its place. Modified Host Cell DNA Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

13–4 Applications of Genetic Engineering
Photo credit: ©Anup Shah/Dembinsky Photo Associates Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Transgenic Organisms Transgenic Organisms An organism described as transgenic, contains genes from other species. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Transgenic Organisms Genetic engineering has spurred the growth of biotechnology. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Transgenic Organisms Transgenic Microorganisms Transgenic bacteria produce important substances useful for health and industry. Transgenic bacteria have been used to produce: insulin growth hormone clotting factor Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Transgenic Organisms Transgenic Animals Transgenic animals have been used to study genes and to improve the food supply. Mice have been produced with human genes that make their immune systems act similarly to those of humans. This allows scientists to study the effects of diseases on the human immune system. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Transgenic Organisms Researchers are trying to produce transgenic chickens that will be resistant to the bacterial infections that can cause food poisoning. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Transgenic Organisms Transgenic Plants Transgenic plants are now an important part of our food supply. Many of these plants contain a gene that produces a natural insecticide, so plants don’t have to be sprayed with pesticides. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Cloning Cloning A clone is a member of a population of genetically identical cells produced from a single cell. In 1997, Ian Wilmut cloned a sheep called Dolly. Dolly and Bonnie The adult sheep is Dolly, the first mammal cloned from an adult cell. The lamb is Dolly’s first offspring, called Bonnie. The fact that Dolly was cloned did not affect her ability to produce a live offspring. Photo Credit: PA News Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Cloning Dolly Cloning Donor Nucleus Fused cell Egg Cell In early 1997, Dolly made headlines as the first clone of an adult mammal. Embryo Cloned Lamb Foster Mother Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Cloning Dolly Cloning Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Cloning Cloning Dolly In early 1997, Dolly made headlines as the first clone of an adult mammal. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Cloning Dolly Cloning In early 1997, Dolly made headlines as the first clone of an adult mammal. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Researchers hope cloning will enable them to make copies of transgenic animals and help save endangered species. Studies suggest that cloned animals may suffer from a number of genetic defects and health problems. Cloning Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

13-1 Changing the Living World

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