1. Introduction to the Theorists
Mark Ridolfo (with thanks also to Hélène Lewis)
Welcome

2. Some introductory comments on cross-cultural theory . . .
Serious attempts to study the impact of cultural differences on business and management only really date back to the early 1980’s, and the discipline did not begin to enjoy widespread recognition and legitimacy until the early 1990’s.
The subject area, which encompasses cross-cultural / intercultural theory, management and communication, draws on numerous more traditional disciplines, including anthropology, organisational behaviour, social psychology and operations management.
Although the discipline is now well recognised and has achieved legitimacy in both commercial and academic circles, it remains controversial and hotly debated.

3. Some introductory comments on cross-cultural theory . . .
It is important to remember that the people whose work we will be reviewing do not want to stereotype. Rather, they identify patterns of behaviour and tendencies that one might reasonably expect to encounter.
They provide us with a set of criteria (known as ‘dimensions’), by which we may compare and contrast cultures, stressing, however, that in any culture, the individual may not necessarily conform to the stereotype.
The material presented in this lecture provides only an introductory overview of the most relevant theories. To fully appreciate the fine points, you are advised to refer to the original texts and web sites.

4. Geert Hofstede Short-term v long-term orientation Power Distance
Key text: Cultures and Organisations (1991)
Perspective: Social Psychology
“Culture may be viewed as the collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes one group of people from another”.
Short-term v long-term orientation
Power Distance
Femininity and masculinity
Individualism v collectivism
Uncertainty avoidance

5. Geert Hofstede The Power Distance Index
“The extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed equally”.
In a low power distance culture, inequalities among people are minimised:
Teachers treat students as equals, and vice versa.
We expect our boss to consult us when s/he takes decisions.
In a high power distance culture, inequalities among people are both expected and desired:
Students must treat teachers with respect.
Bosses to tell subordinates what to do and rarely, if ever, consult.

6. Sample scores for Power Distance
Figures based on Hofstede (1991), cited in Schneider & Barsoux (2003)

7. Geert Hofstede Individualism and collectivism
In individualist societies, people look after themselves and their immediate family:
Relationships with employers are contractual.
People expect promotion based on skills and rules.
The task performed at work is more important than relationships with colleagues.
In collectivist societies, people are integrated from birth into strong, cohesive groups, which protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty:
Relationships with employers are based on trust, like relationships between family members.
Promotion takes into account which group(s) we belong to.
Our relationships with work colleagues are as important, if not more so, than work tasks.

8. Sample scores for Individualism / Collectivism
Figures based on Hofstede (1991), cited in Schneider & Barsoux (2003)

9. Geert Hofstede Masculinity and Femininity
In masculine cultures, the roles men and women play in society are seen as being separate and distinct:
Men are expected to be assertive and tough, whilst women are expected to be modest and tender.
In the workplace, we expect our boss to be assertive and decisive.
Ideas such as competition and performance will be important.
Conflicts will often be resolved by fighting them out.
In feminine cultures, the roles of men and women overlap:
Men may be expected to be modest and tender.
We expect bosses to use intuition and try to reach a consensus.
Ideas such as equality and quality of working life will be important
Conflicts in the work place are resolved through negotiation and compromise.

10. Sample scores for Masculinity / Femininity
Figures based on Hofstede (1991), cited in Schneider & Barsoux (2003)

11. Geert Hofstede Uncertainty avoidance
Uncertainty Avoidance describes the extent to which societies are able to tolerate uncertainty and change.
In a strong uncertainty avoidance culture, people have a strong need for rules and regulations, and place a high value on time and punctuality. Ideas that are unusual or deviant are more likely to be suppressed. There will be a need to keep busy and work hard.
In a society that has weak uncertainty avoidance, people will prefer fewer rules and regulations, and will not feel uncomfortable when not working. Unusual and innovative ideas and behaviour will be tolerated.

12. Sample scores for Uncertainty Avoidance
Figures based on Hofstede (1991), cited in Schneider & Barsoux (2003)

13. Geert Hofstede Short-term versus long-term orientation
Developed to help better understand Asian cultures, which were less easy to analyse using just the other dimensions (also known as ‘Confucian dynamism’).
Long-term orientation represents the fostering of virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular perseverance and thrift.
Short-term orientation represents the fostering of virtues related to the past and present, in particular respect for tradition, preservation of ‘face’, and fulfilling social obligations.

14. Edward and Mildred Hall
Key text: Understanding Cultural Differences (1990)
Perspective: Anthropology
“the essence of effective cross-cultural communication has more to do with releasing the right responses than with sending the right messages”.
Space
Context
Time
Distance
Low Context V High Context
History
Location
Language
Polychronic V Monochronic
Noise
Schedule

15. Edward and Mildred Hall
High-context cultures share large amounts of knowledge and different assumptions are made as to the amount of information a verbal or written message carries. A lot of information in high-context cultures may be implicit and transmitted as ambiguous and fragmentary clues or hints.
Low context cultures deliver messages which are highly explicit, assuming less previous knowledge.
Polychronic cultures handle multiple tasks at the same time, and conduct their lives in such a way that time is subordinate to interpersonal relations.
Monochronic cultures do one thing at a time and live their lives according to the “time is money” ethos.

16. Edward and Mildred Hall High versus low context

17. Edward and Mildred Hall Monochronic versus Polychronic
Interpersonal relations:
are subordinate to any preset schedule
supercede any preset schedule
Co-ordination of activity:
depends on schedules; the time for an appointment is rigid
depends on relations; the time for an appointment is flexible
Tasks are handled:
usually one at a time
often with many tasks being done simultaneously
Breaks and personal time:
are sacrosanct, regardless of personal ties
are subordinate to personal ties

18. Edward and Mildred Hall Monochronic versus Polychronic
Time is:
inflexible and tangible
flexible and fluid
Work time is:
clearly separated from personal time
not clearly separable from personal time
Socialising with colleagues outside work:
is uncommon
is common and may even be expected
The value of work is measured:
By output in time (e.g. activity per hour or minute)
Holistically, as part of overall organisational goals

19. Fons Trompenaars Our relationships with:
Key text: Riding the Waves of Culture (1994)
Perspective: Business Operations
“Culture is the way in which a group of people works together to solve problems”.
Our relationships with:
Nature
Time
People
universalism v particularism
individualism v collectivism
neutral v affective
diffuse v specific
achievement v ascription

20. Fons Trompenaars Universalism versus particularism
Universalism defines our relationship to society in terms of rules and regulations.
Particularism defines our relationship to society in terms of family and friends.
If we are from a Universalist culture we may, for example, not cross the street when the light is red even if there are no cars, because this will break a rule.
If we are from a Particularist culture we will be inclined to break rules if we believe they are getting in the way of other relationships. We may cross the street to greet a friend or relative even though the light is red.

21. Fons Trompenaars Individualism versus collectivism
Individualism is defined as “a prime orientation to self" and collectivism as "a prime orientation to common goals and objectives".
Individualist cultures focus on individual performance and achievement. The ability to take decisions quickly and authoritatively is highly regarded.
Collectivist cultures define an individual in terms of his/her relationship with a group. Decision-making will normally require the agreement of all parties and may be very time-consuming. However, once the decision has been made, people are more likely to be committed to it and everyone in the group will implement that decision.

22. Fons Trompenaars Affective versus neutral
Reason and emotion both play a role in our relationships with one another. In all cultures, we make decisions on the basis partly of logic (reason) and partly of emotions. Cultures which rely more on reasoning (logic / ‘facts’) are described as neutral. Those cultures in which emotions play a greater role are described as affective.
If we are from a neutral culture, we are less likely to ‘telegraph’ our feelings or emotions, but will keep them carefully controlled.
If we are from an affective culture, where emotion dominates, we are more likely to show our feelings openly by laughing, smiling or showing anger. Our feelings will find an immediate outlet.

23. Fons Trompenaars Diffuse versus specific
The diffuse and specific dimension describes the extent to which our relationships with others are limited to specific environments or whether they overlap.
People from diffuse cultures allow others into multiple areas of their lives and thus show other people more than one level of their personality. Mixing with colleagues outside of work is fairly common (and may even be expected). There is more overlap between public and private personas.
People from specific cultures tend to allow others into specific areas of their lives. For example, socialising with work colleagues would be rare. There is less overlap between public and private personas.

24. Fons Trompenaars Achievement versus ascription
How we accord status indicates whether we are from an achievement-oriented culture or an ascriptive culture. Ascriptive cultures attribute status according to such factors as age, class, gender and education. Achievement-oriented cultures attribute status according to individual achievement.
This has particularly important implications when younger ‘Westerners’ try to operate in S.E.Asia. What in the West may be considered dynamic confidence in a young high-achiever, may be seen as disrespectful brashness in ascriptive cultures, such as China or Japan.

25. Introduction to the Theorists
Thank you for your attention