Chapter 7 Ionic and Metallic Bonding 7.1 Ions 7.2 Ionic Bonds and

Chapter 7 Ionic and Metallic Bonding 7.1 Ions 7.2 Ionic Bonds and
Ionic Compounds 7.3 Bonding in Metals Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

CHEMISTRY & YOU What is fool’s gold? Pyrite (FeS2) is often mistaken for gold—hence its nickname, “fool’s gold.” Pyrite is an example of a crystalline solid. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Valence Electrons Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest occupied energy level of an element’s atoms. The number of valence electrons largely determines the chemical properties of an element. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Determining the Number of Valence Electrons
Valence electrons are usually the only electrons involved in chemical bonds. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Determining the Number of Valence Electrons
Valence electrons are usually the only electrons involved in chemical bonds. As a general rule, only the valence electrons are shown in electron dot structures. Electron dot structures are diagrams that show valence electrons in the atoms of an element as dots. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Interpret Data Electron Dot Structures of Some Group A Elements Period Group 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A 1 2 3 4 This table shows electron dot structures for atoms of some Group A elements. Notice that all the electrons within a given group (with the exception of helium) have the same number of electron dots in their structures. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Valence Electrons The Octet Rule Noble gases, such as neon and argon, are nonreactive in chemical reactions. That is, they are stable. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Valence Electrons The Octet Rule The octet rule states that in forming compounds, atoms tend to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Valence Electrons The Octet Rule The octet rule states that in forming compounds, atoms tend to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas. An octet is a set of eight. Atoms of each of the noble gases (except helium) have eight electrons in their highest occupied energy levels and the general electron configuration of ns2np6. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Valence Electrons The Octet Rule Atoms of metals tend to lose their valence electrons, leaving a complete octet in the next-lowest energy level. Atoms of some nonmetals tend to gain electrons or share electrons with another nonmetal atom or atoms to achieve a complete octet. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Draw the electron dot structure for bismuth.
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Draw the electron dot structure for bismuth.
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Formation of Cations How are cations formed? Formation of Cations

Formation of Cations How are cations formed?
An atom is electrically neutral because it has equal numbers of protons and electrons. An ion forms when an atom or group of atoms loses or gains electrons. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Cations A positively charged ion, or cation, is produced when an atom loses one or more valence electrons. A sodium atom (Na) forms a sodium cation (Na+). A calcium atom (Ca) forms a calcium cation (Ca+). Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Cations Group 1A Cations Both the sodium ion and the neon atom have eight electrons in their valence shells (highest occupied energy levels). Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Magnesium atom (electrically neutral, charge = 0)
Formation of Cations Group 2A Cations Magnesium (atomic number 12) belongs to Group 2A of the periodic table, so magnesium atoms have two valence electrons. • Magnesium atom (electrically neutral, charge = 0) • Mg Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Cations Group 2A Cations Magnesium (atomic number 12) belongs to Group 2A of the periodic table, so magnesium atoms have two valence electrons. A magnesium atom attains the electron configuration of a neon atom by losing both valence electrons and producing a magnesium cation with a charge of 2+. • Mg Mg e– • loses all its valence electrons Magnesium atom (electrically neutral, charge = 0) Magnesium ion (2+ indicates two units of positive charge) (2 in front of e– indicates two units of negative charge) Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

The figure at right lists the symbols of the cations formed by metals
Formation of Cations The figure at right lists the symbols of the cations formed by metals in Groups 1A and 2A. Cations of Group 1A elements always have a charge of 1+. Cations of Group 2A elements always have a charge of 2+. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Transition Metal Cations
Formation of Cations Transition Metal Cations The charges of cations of the transition metals may vary. An atom of iron may lose two valence electrons, forming the Fe2+ cation, or three valence electrons, forming the Fe3+ cation. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Cations Transition Metal Cations Some ions formed by transition metals do not have noble-gas electron configurations (ns2np6) and are therefore exceptions to the octet rule. Silver, with the electron configuration of 1s22s22p63s22p63d104s24p64d105s1, is an example. To achieve the structure of krypton, a silver atom would have to lose eleven electrons. To acquire the electron configuration of xenon, a silver atom would have to gain seven electrons. Ions with charges of three or greater are uncommon. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Cations Transition Metal Cations A copper atom loses its lone 4s electron to form a copper ion (Cu+) with a pseudo noble-gas electron configuration, as illustrated below. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

CHEMISTRY & YOU Fool’s gold is composed of iron(II) cations (Fe2+) and disulfide anions (S22–). Write the electron configuration of the Fe2+ ion. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

CHEMISTRY & YOU Fool’s gold is composed of iron(II) cations (Fe2+) and disulfide anions (S22–). Write the electron configuration of the Fe2+ ion. Fe: 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2 Fe2+: 1s22s22p63s23p63d6 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

How does a cesium atom form a cation?
A. By losing 2 electrons B. By gaining 1 electron C. By losing 1 electron D. By gaining 2 electrons Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Anions How are anions formed? Formation of Anions

An anion is produced when an atom gains one or more valence electrons.
Formation of Anions An anion is produced when an atom gains one or more valence electrons. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

An anion is produced when an atom gains one or more valence electrons.
Formation of Anions An anion is produced when an atom gains one or more valence electrons. Note that the name of an anion of a nonmetallic element is not the same as the element name. The name of the anion typically ends in -ide. Thus, a chlorine atom (Cl) forms a chloride anion (Cl–). An oxygen atom (O) forms an oxide anion (O2–). Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Anions Atoms of nonmetals and metalloids form anions by gaining enough valence electrons to attain the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Anions Atoms of nonmetallic elements attain noble-gas electron configurations more easily by gaining electrons than by losing them because these atoms have relatively full valence shells. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Atoms of chlorine have seven valence electrons.
Formation of Anions Atoms of nonmetallic elements attain noble-gas electron configurations more easily by gaining electrons than by losing them because these atoms have relatively full valence shells. Atoms of chlorine have seven valence electrons. A gain of one electron gives a chlorine atom an octet and converts a chlorine atom into a chloride atom. Cl 1s22s22p63s23p Cl– 1s22s22p63s23p6 +e– octet Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Anions Chlorine atoms need one more valence electron to achieve the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Anions The ions produced when atoms of chlorine and other halogens gain electrons are called halide ions. All halogen atoms have seven valence electrons and need to gain only one electron to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas. All halide ions (F–, Cl–, Br–, and I–) have a charge of 1–. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Oxygen is in Group 6A, and an oxygen atom has six valence electrons.
Formation of Anions Oxygen is in Group 6A, and an oxygen atom has six valence electrons. An oxygen atom attains the electron configuration of neon by gaining two electrons. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

This table lists some common anions.
Interpret Data This table lists some common anions. Some Common Anions Name Symbol Charge Fluoride F– 1– Chloride Cl– Bromide Br– Iodide I– Oxide O2– 2– Sulfide S2– Nitride N3– 3– Phosphide P3– Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

What is the electron configuration of a sulfide ion
What is the electron configuration of a sulfide ion? What noble gas shares this configuration? Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

What is the electron configuration of a sulfide ion
What is the electron configuration of a sulfide ion? What noble gas shares this configuration? S2–: 1s22s22p63s23p6 This is the same configuration as Ar. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Chapter 7 Ionic and Metallic Bonding 7.2 Ionic Bonds and
7.1 Ions 7.2 Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds 7.3 Bonding in Metals Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Where does table salt come from?
CHEMISTRY & YOU Where does table salt come from? In some countries, salt is obtained by the evaporation of seawater. In other countries, salt is mined from rock deposits deep underground. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formation of Ionic Compounds
Sodium chloride, or table salt, is an ionic compound consisting of sodium cations and chloride anions. An ionic compound is a compound composed of cations and anions. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Although they are composed of ions, ionic compounds are electrically neutral. The total positive charge of the cations equals the total negative charge of the anions. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Ionic Bonds Anions and cations have opposite charges and attract one another by means of electrostatic forces. The electrostatic forces that hold ions together in ionic compounds are called ionic bonds. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Ionic Bonds When sodium and chlorine react to form a compound, the sodium atom transfers its one valence electron to the chlorine atom. Sodium and chlorine atoms combine in a one-to-one ratio, and both ions have stable octets. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formula Units A chemical formula shows the numbers of atoms of each element in the smallest representative unit of a substance. NaCl is the chemical formula for sodium chloride. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formula Units Ionic compounds do not exist as discrete units, but as collections of positively and negatively charged ions arranged in repeating patterns. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formula Units The chemical formula of an ionic compound refers to a ratio known as a formula unit. A formula unit is the lowest whole-number ratio of ions in an ionic compound. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Formula Units For sodium chloride, the lowest whole-number ratio of the ions is 1:1 (one Na+ ion to each Cl– ion). The formula unit for sodium chloride is NaCl. Although ionic charges are used to derive the correct formula, they are not shown when you write the formula unit of the compound. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Sample Problem 7.1 Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds Use electron dot structures to predict the formulas of the ionic compounds formed from the following elements: a. potassium and oxygen b. magnesium and nitrogen Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Properties of Ionic Compounds
What are three properties of ionic compounds? Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

1) Most ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature. The beauty of crystalline solids comes from the orderly arrangement of their component ions. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Each ion is attracted strongly to each of its neighbors, and repulsions are minimized. The large attractive forces result in a very stable structure. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

When sodium chloride is melted, the orderly crystal structure breaks down. To (+) electrode To (–) electrode Inert metal electrodes Flow of electrons Current meter Power source Cl– Na+ If a voltage is applied across this molten mass, cations migrate freely to one electrode and anions migrate to the other. This movement of electrons allows electric current to flow between the electrodes through an external wire. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

This solar facility uses molten NaCl for its ability to absorb and hold a large quantity of heat, which is used to generate electricity. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

The coordination number of an ion is the number of ions of opposite charge that surround the ion in a crystal. In NaCl, each ion has a coordination number of 6. The coordination number of Na+ is 6 because each Na+ ion is surrounded by six Cl– ions. The coordination number of Cl– is also 6 because each Cl– ion is surrounded by six Na+ ions. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

In CsCl, each ion has a coordination number of 8. Each Cs+ ion is surrounded by eight Cl– ions. Each Cl– ion is surrounded by eight Cs+ ions. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Titanium dioxide (TiO2), or rutile, forms tetragonal crystals. The coordination number for the cation (Ti4+) is 6. Each Ti4+ ion is surrounded by six O2– ions. The coordination number of the anion (O2–) is 3. Each O2– ion is surrounded by three Ti4+ ions. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

When can ionic compounds conduct an electric current?
A. Only when melted B. When melted or dissolved in water C. Only when dissolved in water D. When solid or melted Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Chapter 7 Ionic and Metallic Bonding 7.3 Bonding in Metals 7.1 Ions
7.2 Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds 7.3 Bonding in Metals Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

What are some properties that are unique to metals?
CHEMISTRY & YOU What are some properties that are unique to metals? Wrought iron is a very pure form of iron that contains trace amounts of carbon. It is a tough, malleable, ductile, and corrosion-resistant material that melts at very high temperatures. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

How can you model the valence electrons of metal atoms? Metals consist of closely packed cations and loosely held valence electrons rather than neutral atoms. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

The valence electrons of atoms in a pure metal can be modeled as a sea of electrons. The valence electrons are mobile and can drift freely from one part of the metal to another. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Metallic bonds are the forces of attraction between the free-floating valence electrons and the positively charged metal ions. These bonds hold metals together. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Properties of Metals Metals are good conductors of electric current because electrons can flow freely in the metal. As electrons enter one end of a bar of metal, an equal number of electrons leave the other end. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Properties of Metals Metals are ductile—that is, they can be drawn into wires. Force Metal rod Die Wire Metals are also malleable, which means that they can be hammered or pressed into shapes. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Properties of Metals When a metal is subjected to pressure, the metal cations easily slide past one another. Force Sea of electrons Metal cation Metal Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Properties of Metals When a metal is subjected to pressure, the metal cations easily slide past one another. Sea of electrons Metal cation Force Strong repulsions Nonmetal anion Metal Ionic crystal If an ionic crystal is struck with a hammer, the blow tends to push the positive ions close together. The positive ions repel one another, and the crystal shatters. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

How are metals and ionic compounds different? How are they similar?
CHEMISTRY & YOU How are metals and ionic compounds different? How are they similar? Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

How are metals and ionic compounds different? How are they similar?
CHEMISTRY & YOU How are metals and ionic compounds different? How are they similar? Both metals and ionic compounds form crystal structures. However, they have different configurations of electrons. The sea of electrons surrounding cations in a metal allows metals to be ductile and malleable. Ionic crystals will fracture under pressure. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Crystalline Structure of Metals For spheres of identical size, such as metal atoms, several closely packed arrangements are possible. These Thai oranges illustrate a pattern called a hexagonal close-packed arrangement. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Crystalline Structure of Metals In a body-centered cubic structure, every atom (except those on the surface) has eight neighbors. Chromium The metallic elements sodium, potassium, iron, chromium, and tungsten crystallize in a body-centered cubic pattern. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Crystalline Structure of Metals In a face-centered cubic arrangement, every atom has twelve neighbors. Among the metals that form a face-centered cubic structure are copper, silver, gold, aluminum, and lead. Gold Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Crystalline Structure of Metals In a hexagonal close-packed arrangement, every atom also has twelve neighbors. Zinc The pattern is different from the face-centered cubic arrangement. Metals that have a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure include magnesium, zinc, and cadmium. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

C. A rigid array of electrons D. A sea of electrons
Which of the following models can describe the valence electrons of metals? A. A body-centered cube B. Octets of electrons C. A rigid array of electrons D. A sea of electrons Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Why are alloys important?

Why are alloys important?
Alloys are mixtures of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. Brass, for example, is an alloy of copper and zinc. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Alloys Alloys are important because their properties are often superior to those of their component elements. Sterling silver (92.5 percent silver and 7.5 percent copper) is harder and more durable than pure silver, yet it is still soft enough to be made into jewelry and tableware. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

The most important alloys today are steels.
The principal elements in most steels, in addition to iron and carbon, are boron, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, and vanadium. Stainless Steel 80.6% Fe 18.0% Cr 0.4% C 1.0% Ni Steels have a wide range of useful properties, such as corrosion resistance, ductility, hardness, and toughness. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Alloys can form from their component atoms in different ways.

If the atoms of the components in an alloy are about the same size, they can replace each other in the crystal. This type of alloy is called a substitutional alloy. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

If the atoms of the components in an alloy are about the same size, they can replace each other in the crystal. This type of alloy is called a substitutional alloy. If the atomic sizes are quite different, the smaller atoms can fit into the interstices (spaces) between the larger atoms. Such an alloy is called an interstitial alloy. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Explain why alloys are important, and list one important alloy.

Explain why alloys are important, and list one important alloy.
Alloys are important because they often have properties that are superior to those of the elements from which they are made. Stainless steel is an important alloy because of its corrosion resistance. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Key Concepts The valence electrons of atoms in a pure metal can be modeled as a sea of electrons. Alloys are important because their properties are often superior to those of their component elements. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Chapter 7 Ionic and Metallic Bonding 7.1 Ions 7.2 Ionic Bonds and

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