1. Motivation
Chapter Twelve

2. I. Theories of Motivation

3. Are feelings or ideas that cause us to act towards a goal
A. Definition
Are feelings or ideas that cause us to act towards a goal
2. Can not see motivation directly so we assume it from the behavior we observe
3. Can come from outside or inside of us

4. B. Instinct Theory
1. Theory focused on instincts: inborn patterns of behavior that are not learned
2. Argues that organisms are preprogrammed to engage in behaviors that ensure survival & reproduction
Occur in almost the same way among all members of a species (Ex. migration, nest building, hibernation, etc.)
They do not explain human behavior
3. William McDougal suggested that 18 primary instincts drive behavior (1908)

5. C. What Motivates Us to Action
1. That “something” starts with need & then leads to a drive
a. Need– results from a lack of something desirable or useful
Can be physiological or psychological
Examples- oxygen and food (physiological); self-esteem (psychological)
b. Drive– feeling of tension caused by an unmet need
Motivates us to do something to meet need
Primary drives- basic biological needs (hunger, thirst, sleep)
Examples- hunger drives us to eat; curiosity drives us to find out something

7. D. Drive-Reduction Theory
1. It replaced instinct theory
2. Emerged from work of Clark Hull
3. His Theory:
a. When an organism is deprived of something it needs or wants, it becomes tense & agitated
b. To relieve this tension, it engages in more or less random activity
c. Biological needs drive an organism to act, & the organism strives us to maintain homeostasis (a balanced state)
d. Conclusion- Physical needs drive an organism to act randomly or according to habit until it satisfies its needs
3. He also believed that all human motives are extensions of basic biological needs

8. Internal rewards can also motivate behavior
E. Incentive Theory
Proposes that individuals are motivated by a desire to obtain external incentives such as money, affection, & grades
Are also referred to as secondary drives (drives that are learned or acquired through experience)
Internal rewards can also motivate behavior
Even expectation of a reward can be motivating

9. F. Arousal Theory
Argues that individuals are often motivated by a desire to either maintain or increase their level of stimulation or excitement
Seek homeostasis of levels of arousal
When arousal is too high, we seek to lower it
When arousal is too low, we seek to raise it
Related to Yerkes-Dodson Law– we perform at our best when we are functioning at a moderate level of arousal

10. G. Cognitive Theory
Proposes that individuals are motivated as a result of their own thoughts, desires, goals and expectations
2. Differentiates between two types:
Extrinsic– drives individuals to engage in behaviors for external, tangible rewards such as money or to avoid punishment
b. Intrinsic– leads individuals to engage in behaviors for their own enjoyment or needs

12. H. Psychological Theory
Focuses on social & psychological needs as powerful motivators underlying behavior
Also focused on need for achievement
Argues that individuals are motivated by a desire to accomplish tasks and to excel
Need for achievement differs among individuals

13. I. Humanistic Theory Proposed by Abraham Maslow
He saw human behavior as motivated primarily by a drive toward growth and fulfillment of needs
He developed hierarchy of needs– outlined the various needs that drive human behavior and suggested that human behavior is driven by where one is in the hierarchy
Low-order needs must be satisfied before working to satisfy higher-order needs

14. J. Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological needs– include primary drives such as the need for water, food, & sleep
Safety needs– include need for a safe, secure environment
3&4. Belongingness & love needs & Esteem needs– include need to belong, to contribute to society & to feel valued by others
5. Self-actualization– one is able to recognize their fullest potential (only a few people actually attain full self-actualization

16. II. Hunger Motivation

17. Basics of Hunger
Stomach contractions occur closely before a hunger pang. Stomach contractions indicate hunger. 17

18. A. Basics of Hunger 1. Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)
Part of hypothalamus that tells you to eat
2. Ventromedial hypothalamus (VH)
Part of hypothalamus that tells you to stop eating
3. Hypothalamus interprets & uses these to determine whether or not to motivate you to eat:
Amount of glucose entering the cells
Your set-point (day-to-day weight):
When we drop below weight, metabolic rate drops
When weight is reached, MR raises to burn any excess food

19. B. Why Do We Eat?
1. Some people are motivated to eat by external food cues (including attractiveness or availability of food)
2. Internals are less affected by presence & presentation of food
3. Culture & background can also affect our food preferences

20. How can peer pressure impact your hunger?

21. C. Eating Disorders
1. Causes– pressure from society; biological factors
2. Bulimia- eat large amounts of food in a short period of time (binging) & then get rid of food (purging) by vomiting, excessive exercise, or use of laxatives
Majority of bulimics are women
3. Anorexia nervosa- where people starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight & refuse to eat due to their obsession with weight
Majority of anorexics are women
4. Obesity- are severely overweight (often over 100 lbs); excess weight threatens their health
Have unhealthy eating habits
May also be genetically predisposed to obesity

22. Anorexia Nervosa

24. III. Social Motivation

25. A. Theories
1. Achievement motivation examines our desires to master complex tasks & knowledge & to reach personal goals
2. Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation–
Extrinsic: rewards that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades)
Only effective for a short period of time
Intrinsic: rewards we get internally (enjoyment)
Most effective
3. Management Theory-
Theory X: Managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment
Theory Y: Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work & policies should encourage this internal motive

26. B. Types of Motivational Conflicts
1. Approach-approach conflict: tension you feel when you must choose between 2 attractive options
Example– an attractive first date & a ski weekend with friends
2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict: tension you feel when you must choose between two disagreeable options
Example- Study or do the dishes
3. Approach-avoidance conflict: tension you feel when you find yourself in a situation that has both enjoyable & disagreeable consequences
You are designated driver. While in bar, you desire a beer to "look cool." However, idea of a beer is also unappealing because of increased risk of being arrested for impaired driving.
4. Double approach-avoidance conflict: tension you feel when you must choose between multiple options, each of which has pleasurable & disagreeable aspects
Example- Working out vs. watching TV

27. IV. Sexual Motivation

28. A. Basics
Sex is motivated by both biological and psychological factors but is controlled mostly by the psychological factors
Four phases of sexual response cycle– initial excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
Sexual desire can be present even when the capability to have sex is lost (ex. accident victims)
Homosexuality is NOT related to traumatic childhood experiences, parenting styles, the quality of relationships with parents, or whether we were raised by homosexual/heterosexual parents (but could be affected by their environment)

29. IV. Emotions

30. Brandi Chastain hits the winning goal.
How do you think she felt?

31. A. Purposes of Emotion 1. Our feelings might push us to pursue a goal
We do things we think will make us feel good
The good feelings we expect to receive are the rewards of the behavior
2. Emotions help us make decisions & communicate what is going on inside us
Example: People use emotional intelligence to make decisions

32. B. What are Emotions?
Feelings brought on by a real or imaginary object/event that is important to you
2. 4 things happen when you experience an emotion:
Must interpret some stimulus.
You have subjective feeling.
Fear or happiness.
You experience physiological responses.
Increased heart rate.
You display an observable behavior.
Smiling or crying.

33. C. Structures Involved in Emotions
Amygdala – emotion central
Sympathetic nervous system – revs up the body
Parasympathetic nervous system – calms the body
Both work together to create underlying physical response for any emotion
Some think this physical response is similar for many emotions

34. D. Parts of an Emotion All emotions have 3 parts:
Physical
Changes inside the body
Behavioral
Outward expression of the emotion (body language)
Cognitive
How we think about or interpret a situation
When someone says hello, we may think that the person is being friendly, hostile, or mocking
Basic, universal emotions:
Fear; Surprise; Anger; Disgust; Happiness; Sadness

36. E. Theories of Emotions James-Lange theory
Developed by William James & Carl Lange
Argued that the body’s physical reactions occur first, and we feel emotions when we recognize these changes

37. E. Theories of Emotions Developed by William B. Cannon & Philip Bard
2. Cannon-Bard theory
Developed by William B. Cannon & Philip Bard
Disagreed with James-Lange theory
Physiological arousal & emotional experience occur simultaneously

38. E. Theories of Emotions 3. Schachter’s Two-Factor theory
Components must be present to experience emotion
Combination of physical response & cognitive label create an emotion