1. “After 1700 ‘race’ would mean biologically distinct groups of people, who physical differences produced differences in culture, character, and intelligence.”
“Social Darwinism”

6. During the 17th century, European states began consolidating power at the expense of the Catholic Church and wealthy landowners
State monopolies on:
*military
*taxation
*legal system

7. Expanding states begin census programs to more efficiently tax citizens
Most European citizens did not speak the same language as their rulers

9. King Louis XIV’s persecution of French protestants led to the emigration of some of France’s most intelligent and productive citizens

10. Louis XIV practiced a policy of mercantilism
The state must sell more than it buys
To ensure this, large tariffs were put on imports (the opposite of free trade)

11. “Louis’s goal was to expand France to what he considered its natural borders.”
Many of the lands were populated by Germans

12. Meanwhile, in Russia… No Renaissance No Reformation
No Commercial Revolution
No limits on the power of the czar
No middle class of landowners or businessowners

13. While European powers developed absolutist states, England and the Netherlands evolved toward constitutionalism, which is the limitation of government by law.

14. The English Civil War
Parliament defeats and executes King Charles, but what replaces him?

15. Charles was replaced by Oliver Cromwell, who made himself dictator and invaded Ireland
In Ireland, the English took land from the Irish, executed priests, and outlawed Catholicism

20. England returns to being a constitutional monarch, which it remains to this day
“The cure is sometimes worse than the disease”
“Revolutions often devour their young”