1. Life-Course Theories in Emerging Adulthood
Individuals and Families: Diverse Perspectives
Unit 2 – Chapter 4

2. Life-Course Theories
Describe changes in behaviour in age-graded patterns as individuals mature
Behaviour of individuals results from inner psychological changes in response to life circumstances
Sometimes called developmental theories
Life-course theories are created by analyzing the behaviours of large groups of individuals over a long period of time
Life-course theories began to appear in the 1950s
Life-course theories reflect the historical and cultural context in which the researchers conducted their studies
Developmental theories—implies both growth and improvement in the individual.
Both qualitative and quantitative data are used by researchers to identify patterns of behaviour and suggest possible explanations for the pattern.
Life-course theories are specific to time and place—a theory developed in North America may not be applicable to other cultures, as the social context in which a person lives has an impact on development.
Older theories are still relevant today—they often form the basis of new research and, ultimately, new theories.

3. Examples of Life-Course Theories
Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life
Klaus Riegel’s Dimensions of Development
Jane Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development
The Family Life-Cycle Framework
Leonard Pearlin’s Theory of Psychological Distress
Daniel Levinson’s Theory of the Seasons of Life
Jeffrey Arnett’s Theory of Emerging Adulthood

4. Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life
A series of eight stages in which an individual’s identity emerges and matures
Each stage presents a dilemma that must be overcome or the person might face difficulties later in life
Psychological and social clocks impact progression through stages
Dilemma during adolescence and young adulthood is defined as “identity versus role confusion”
Dilemma during young adulthood is “intimacy versus isolation”
Identity is an individual’s stable awareness of who he or she is, what he or she does and believes.
They are not age-matched stages (biological clock).
Dilemma of identity reflects the psychological clock and the social clock of society, and pushes/constrains the person as they move through the stages.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
The task is to define who you are and who you will be in the future
There are many decisions to be made during this time that will impact on the future
Until they define who they are, adolescents and young adults will remain confused about the role they will play in adulthood
By resolving the dilemma, individuals acquire the strength of fidelity—the ability to live by society’s standards

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Intimacy is being able to merge yourself with another without losing yourself
Intimacy is the ability to trust a person enough to reveal your personal thoughts and feelings to them
Includes relationships with all people— friends, dating partner, etc.
Erikson believes that relationships would be shallow without an identity
In Erickson’s theory, intimacy doesn’t equal sex.

7. Klaus Riegel’s Dimensions of Development
Four interrelated internal and external dimensions of development:
Internal psychological dimension: emotional maturity, independence, maturity of mental processes
Internal biological dimension: physical and sexual maturity
External cultural-sociological dimension: expectations and opportunities defined by society
External environmental dimension: physical, economic, and political environment in which one lives

8. Klaus Riegel’s Dimensions of Development
Development occurs when a change
in one dimension requires an
adjustment in one or more of the
other dimensions
Example: when individuals are physically mature and emotionally ready for marriage, they will marry if they are old enough according to the culture of the society in which they live and if they can afford to live independently within the economic environment.
Riegel’s theory is an example of ecological systems theory. It explains how the pace of development varies to reflect the changing of a social clock.
Riegel’s theory integrates the
physical and psychological
dimensions with the external social
and environmental dimensions

9. Jane Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development
Identified 10 stages in the formation of the ego
Full ego development is described as having an autonomous self
Loevinger sees the search for understanding of ego (or identity) as the centre of human development
Autonomous self: being self-reliant person who accepts oneself and others as multifaceted and unique
Ego was first used by Sigmund Freud to mean identity.
Ego development begins in infancy with the understanding that you are an individual, separate from your mother.

10. Three stages of Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development are relevant to the adolescent and young adult:
Conformist stage: view life in simple
stereotypical ways
Self-aware stage: begin to understand
and accept individual differences
Have students present examples of behaviours that fit into each of the three stages.
Loevinger believed that few adults ever achieve full ego development but strive for it throughout life.
Within the same society, the pattern of development is similar for all but the pace varies by individual.
Conscientious stage: able to
appreciate others as individuals

11. Jane Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development
Loevinger believes individuals
require a clear sense of themselves
before they can develop intimate
relationships with others
Progress from one stage to the next
is determined by an individual’s
psychological clock, not by
chronological age or the social
environment

12. The Family Life-Cycle Framework
Describes early adulthood as the time when individuals are launched from their families of origin
Parents and youth must separate from one another = change in relationship/new roles
Family of Orientation  Family of Procreation

13. Three tasks of the young adult:
Forming an identity separate
from family of origin
Making a commitment to career
or workplace role
Developing intimate
relationships with peers outside
of family

14. Leonard Pearlin’s Theory of Psychological Distress
Life course of continuous change required by distress
Distress: a stimulus that requires a psychological response
Young adults might experience distress as the individual acts to achieve their dreams formed in adolescence
This is not a stage theory. Pearlin believes adulthood is not a series of transitions from one period of stability to another.

15. The path one takes is determined by four elements:
Individual characteristics
Range of skills an individual has for coping with stress
Availability of social support
networks
Nature and timing of stress that
requires a response

16. Similarities in Life-Course Theories
Because individuals change in response to similar external circumstances and stresses that affect their lives (the social clock)
Individuals can anticipate and prepare for these role changes (e.g., by socializing)
Cohort effect – changes in behaviour result from socialized responses to a common external social clock, not age-linked inner changes

17. Daniel Levinson’s Theory of the Seasons of Life
Life course evolves through seasons lasting about 25 years each
From age 17–22, the adult season begins
Individuals prepare for an adult life structure by separating from family of origin
Levinson talks about changes in the emotional attachment to the family of origin. This allows the young adult to participate in the adult world.

18. Early Life Structure for Early Adulthood
From age 22 to 28, individual enters the adult world—time for building one’s life structure:
Forming a Dream and giving it a place in one’s life structure
Forming an occupation
Forming mentor relationships
Forming love relationships, marriage, and family

19. The Dream
The Dream is the individual’s sense of self in the adult world and is the core of the life structure
The nature of the Dream will vary but most include a combination of occupation, family, and community roles
From ages 22 to 28, young adults build and test a preliminary life structure to attain their Dream
Are men’s and women’s Dreams different?
The challenge during young adulthood is to balance the creative exploration of various options with the practical desires to make a commitment to life structure that supports their Dream. Look for examples from movies or TV shows where this might be evident. Consider pressures from parents to take over the family business, taking a job for money even though you don’t really like it, pressure to marry someone of the same class or race, etc.

20. Age-30 Transition
From age 28–33, individuals re-evaluate the life structures formed in their 20s
“Am I living my dream? If I am to change my life ... I must now make a start, for soon it will be too late.”
This is a time to “get real” before “settling down” in their 30s

21. Jeffrey Arnett’s Theory of Emerging Adulthood
Distinct stage in the life course between adolescence and adulthood
Arnett argues individuals from 18–25 years of age in industrialized countries are not yet adults but no longer adolescents
Emerging adults focus identity exploration in a variety of possible life directions in love, work, and worldviews

22. Individuals are semi-autonomous
Instability
Move in and out of the parental home
Have not achieved financial independence
Most young adults do not feel like they have reached adult status
Opportunities for identity exploration separate from and prior to making decisions for adulthood
Individuals are semi-autonomous
This stage is not universal. It was constructed by post-industrial society in the late 20th century.

23. Identity Exploration Young adults focus their
exploration in three areas:
Love
Work
Worldviews
Why might there be more time now for exploration? More young people are going to post-secondary schooling. Marrying later, living together, having sexual intercourse before marriage is more common. There are many opportunities to explore the world for work and volunteering.
The “global village” means that we are all more aware.
Seems that there is more time
for exploration and the
opportunity for experimentation
now than in the past

24. Consider the following:
Divide into 8 groups
Each group will examine one of the photo/figures in Chapter 4 (pages 99–111)
Consider the questions presented with each photo. Refer to information from this presentation and the textbook when responding
Share your responses with the class.
In groups, consider Figures 4-5, 4-7, 4-8, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, 4-12, and Use the information from this presentation and the textbook when responding to the questions. Make connections between the life-course theories and the photos/questions that are presented.