1. Naturalistic or Positivist View
Professor Luiz Moutinho
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2. Naturalistic or Positivist View
The aim of research is to identify causal explanations and fundamental laws that explain regularities in human social behaviour.
The methods of the natural sciences is the only rational source of knowledge and therefore should be adapted for social sciences.
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3. Naturalistic or Positivist View
The organization is seen as an “objective truth” which exists independently of anyone’s attitudes or interpretations.
This truth can be revealed through the scientific method where the focus is on measuring relationships between variables systematically and statistically.
Quantitative techniques usually used.
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4. Naturalistic or Positivist View
The observer is independent of what is being observed.
The observer can stand back and observe the world objectively
Theory can be tested against statements of observation, the “facts” of the situation.
(See Johnson and Duberley, Understanding Management Research, Sage, 2000)
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5. Classical Experimental Design
Involves formation of an experimental and control group
Subjects are generally randomly assigned to each
Conditions are manipulated in the experimental group to assess their effect in comparison to control group
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6. Classical Experimental Design
Situation has to be realistic
Events encountered in the experimental situation must occur in the real world
Subjects know they are being observed.
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7. Social Science Problems
When we know we are being studied we are likely to alter our behaviour to appear in a more positive light. These are reactive effects so are these a true, real view of behaviour?
You cannot see motives and perceptions
There are lots of variables that effect behaviour and they cannot be isolated
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8. Social Science Problems
You cannot observe cause and effect
People change
They can lie
May tell us what they think we want to hear
Only get conscious response
There are few cause and effect relationships to be found
BUT can offer explanations of human behaviour and can make predictions
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9. Phenomenological View
We are self interpreting beings so cannot use techniques that apply to natural objects and events
The social world has no external objective observable truth
Our reality is socially constructed
Should not study “facts” or measure. Should study patterns of meanings + interpretations to discover how experience is understood
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10. Phenomenological View
While with positivism theory is deduced as a result of testing hypotheses, in phenomenology theory is generated from the data collected.
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11. Contrasting Positivism and Phenomenology
Positivism says that reality is neutral and objective and is “out there” waiting to be discovered by empirical scientific research methods. There is an ultimate truth
Phenomenology says reality is socially constructed and is “in there” in terms of shared individual meaning and understandings. The truth is what you want to believe it to be
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12. Elements and Aspects of Reflexive Methodology
Data talks
‘Feel the whole’
Politics, Power and Possibilities
Its all local and provisional
Gender
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13. Hermeneutics Sources and Authors
- interpretation of Bible and ancient classics
- Gadamer, Heidegger
Themes:
- The meaning of a part can only be understood in relation to the whole
- Empathy: understanding calls for ‘living’ oneself into the situation of ‘acting’ (but not hermetic view)
Variants: ‘objective’, alethic, existential
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14. Critical Theory I: Sources and Authors - ‘Frankfurter School’
- Horkheimer, Adorno, Habernas
Themes:
- Realized patterns to be understood in terms of negation (dialectic, historical view) and the possibility of being ‘other’
- Focused not on the universal and invariant regularities but on the clarification of relationships between empirical conditions and social and historical context, particularly asymmetries in power and special interests.
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15. Critical Theory II: Research focus and method are always political
- e.g. the very act of studying hospitals draws attention away from preventative care
Resist confidence in empirical data:
- e.g. if a respondent says ‘leadership is important’ – what does that really mean?
Researcher needs 4 types of theoretical points of reference: hermeneutic understanding of language and meaning; holistic social theory; theory of the ‘unconscious’; an antropological, utopian-dialectical form of understanding
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16. Poststructuralism and Postmodernism
Origins/Sources
- Nietzsche, Heidegger, Lacan, Barthes, Foucault, Derrida, Lyotard
Themes
- ‘truth’ is open, in an ongoing state of creation
- the researcher is an author of ‘truth’
- focus on language and discourse
- human subjectivity a fiction: decentre the individual!
- e.g. note how Foucault treats power as a reflextive and impersonal which personal
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17. Poststructuralism and Postmodernism
Perspectivisation: treat the familiar as strange
Contrasting: understand phenomena in terms of what they do not mean
Dramatization
Be pluralistic – in perception, presentation and theory
Give voice – but that can support power structures as well…
Use irony and sarcasm
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18. Feminism and Gender Gender as variable
Research from a female standpoint
Gender as social and linguistic construction:
- from essentialism to diversity and process
Emancipatory knowledge interest
Bringing emotion back in
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19. Reference
Alvesson, M. and K. Skolberg (2000). Reflexive Methodology. London: Sage.
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20. Prelude: Typology of Social Reflexology
Social Epistemology Rationality Selfhood
Form
Traditional Foun Substantive Logocentric
dationalist
Modern Rationalist Procedural Dualist
Post Relativist Constructive Heterological
modern
Reflexive Critical Dialogical Differential
Sandywell 1996: 15
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21. Reflexivity in Organisational Research
Reflexive research must go beyond epistemological concerns and engage with the ontology of the organisation
A processual, relational view of the social
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22. References
Alvesson, M. and K. Skolberg (2000). Reflexive Methodology. Sage: London
Sandywell, B. (1996). Reflexivity and the Crisis of Western Reason. Routledge: London
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23. Goal and Objective State the desired goal State the desired objective
Use multiple points if necessary
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24. Today’s Situation Summary of the current situation
Use brief bullets, discuss details verbally
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25. How Did We Get Here? Any relevant historical information
Original assumptions that are no longer valid
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26. Available Options State the alternative strategies
List advantages & disadvantages of each
State cost of each option
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27. Recommendation Recommend one or more of the strategies
Summarize the results if things go as proposed
What to do next
Identify action items
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