1. CONCEPTS TO BE INCLUDED
Observation (as data collection method)
Naturalistic & contrived observation
Participant & non-participant observation
Observation or rating
observation schedules
Event sampling
Time sampling

2. DATA-COLLECTION METHODS: observation

3. AIM Introducing various types of observation, including
Naturalistic & contrived observation
Participant & non-participant observation
Types of ‘sampling’ in systematic observation
Construction observation schedules

4. OBSERVATION OF BEHAVIOR
A data collection method in which
observations schedules are used to observe
the behavior of a sample of units of observation
to say something about a population of units of analysis

5. WHEN TO USE OBSERVATION?
When you are interested … in characteristics of (very) young children or animals or in specific (potentially visible) behaviors of adults … you are advised to use observation Non-verbal and sometimes unobtrusive
Because they cannot
answer all ‘questions’
Not ‘thoughts’ or ‘opinions’

6. PHASES IN DOING OBSERVATIONS
Formulate a research question, with clear units and variables
Select units (individuals, animals) for observation
Conceptualize variables you are interested in
Create an observation protocol (observation or rating)
Design observation instructions and observation training
Check inter-observer reliability in a small study
Observe behavior
Store, analyze and report data

7. UNITS AND VARIABLES: WHAT TO OBSERVE?
Be clear about
the units (individuals, animals or events) you want to study,
the variables used to describe these units
For example:
Which children are able to concentrate?
In which classes (schools) are children better able to concentrate?
The exact research question captures what you are interested in. develop the question when presenting the example”

8. TWO ASPECTS OF OBSERVATION
Theoretical variable(s)
Concentration Focus RQ
Data
Conceptualization
Operationalization
Measurement
All properly formulated research questions are about two things, units and variables …
Unit(s)
Child(ren)

9. TYPES OF OBSERVATION (Systematic and non-systematic observation)
Naturalistic versus contrived (structured) observation
Unobtrusive versus obtrusive observation
Participant versus non-participant observation
Just give examples of all three when introducing them…
(Systematic and non-systematic observation); by the school teacher, but she may just pick out the children she dislikes … a lot of observer bias
Naturalistic versus contrived (structured) observation: in a class with a camera (difficult, may happen only sometimes), or in a laboratory setting, which may be safer …
Unobtrusive versus obtrusive observation: interference or not by a researcher …
Participant versus non-participant observation: you may even ‘participate’ (but other questions can maybe best be answered if the researcher is actually taking part in the behaviors being studied

10. ‘SAMPLING’ IN OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
A: Study a sample of children (or one child on a specific day)
B: Study part of the behaviors:
Event ‘sampling’ (record types of behaviors)
Time sampling (describe behaviors at specific time intervals)
Better seen as part of the operationalization
The word sampling is NOT just used in the context of selecting the units of observation …

11. ‘SAMPLING’ IN OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
Event ‘sampling’
(Example: record number of times a child gets distracted)
Limited number of units
Limited number of behaviors
All instances of these behaviors

12. ‘SAMPLING’ IN OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
Time sampling =describe behavior at specific time intervals.
example: first minute, fifth minute, ninth minute etc.
Larger number of units
Larger number of behaviors
Not all instances of these behaviors (sampling)

13. (NOT) INTERPRETING BEHAVIOR
Example: a child is looking out the window Observer bias: personal characteristics determine observations Observer drift: interpretations change over time Observation schedule: “a description of how to write down behaviors in such a way that everyone at every moment in time would write down the same thing”
Observer bias: observer is biased, because she interprets all ‘non active’ behavior as not being concentrated.
Observer drift: observers ’learn’ that some behaviors are or are not intstances of concentration
So, THAT is why you need an observation schedule!

14. DESCRIPTIONS & RATINGS BY OBSERVERS
Observing behaviors (reducing interpretation – decreasing comparability) Rating behaviors (increasing interpretation – increasing comparability) In both case: make clear how the measurement relate to the concepts you want to observe (validity).

15. OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
A: Categories to be used when recording observations Ratings or observational categories B: Instructions describing how to use the schedule

16. CHECKING THE OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
Check whether rater/observer/coder ’see the same thing’ (A or B) Agreement scores: =inter-rater/observer/coder reliability A B x

17. THIS MICROLECTURE Introducing various types of observation, including
Naturalistic & contrived observation
Participant & non-participant observation
Time sampling and event sampling
Observation and rating
Observation and rating schedules

19. IMAGES USED
No reference needed