1. LITERATURE AND CRITICAL THEORY THEORIES, THEORISTS, AND IMPORTANT TERMS
By: K. Yegoryan

2. Critical Theory Greek {kritikos} = judgment – 18th cent
In Literary studies
Is a form of “hermeneutics”- the knowledge via interpretation to understand the meaning of human texts and symbolic expressions

3. Critical Theory
As a term developed from “Frankfurt School” of theorists in 1923 in the meaning of understanding, criticizing and changing social thinking
1st defined by Marx in 1937 in the essay “Traditional and Critical Theory” as a social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole in contrast to traditional theory oriented to understanding and explaining

4. CRITICAL THEORY AND LITERATURE
Focuses on analysis of texts
Originated in 1960s and has been influenced by European philosophy and social theories
“A true critique ought to dwell rather upon excellences than implications to discover the concealed beauties of a writer and communicate to the world such things as are worth their observations” Joseph Addison

5. Literary Theory and Schools of Criticism
Moral Criticism and Dramatic Construction (~360BC-
Formalism (1930s)
Structuralism and Semiotics (1920s)
Marxist Criticism (1930s)
Psychoanalytic Criticism (1930s)
Reader-Response Criticism (1960s)
Post-Structuralism, Deconstruction, Postmodernism (1966)
Post-Colonial Criticism (1990s)
Feminist Criticism (1960s)
Gender Studies and Queer Theory (1970s)

6. Literary Theory and Schools of Criticism
1. Moral Criticism and Dramatic Construction (~360 BC-present)
Plato
Republic, Plato may have given us the first literary criticism through the dialog between Socrates and two of his associates  
Aristotle
In Poetics, Aristotle breaks with his teacher (Plato) in the consideration of art. Aristotle considers poetry and rhetoric
To help authors achieve their objectives, Aristotle developed elements of organization and methods for writing effective poetry and drama known as the principles of dramatic construction 

7. Literary Theory and Schools of Criticism
2. Formalism (1930s-present)
Russian Formalism
New Criticism (USA)
Neo-Aristotelianism (Chicago School of Criticism)

8. RUSSIAN FORMALISM and NEW CRITICISM
Close reading of the work itself
Requires a close focus and analysis of the text
Russian Formalism and New Critics (American school of thought) claimed:
Meaning exists in the text/on the page
No extra-textual sources to understand meaning ( no author’s intention, biography, hist. era should be considered for text’s meaning)

9. DEFAMILIZATION Term by V. Shklovsky ( Russian Formalist)
Instead of seeing Literature as a “reflection” of the world, the writer must explore new technique and devices for a renewed perception
( ex. the use of figurative, connotative meaning)
The readers should experience new meanings and perspectives when seeing the similar in a different way – “defamiliarized”

10. STRUCTUALISM
Method of Literary interpretation via structure (human activates are structured and constructed and so are texts)
Structuralism was affected by:
Linguistics
Social ideology
Psychology/anthropology
Literary analysis

11. 3. Structuralism and Semiotics (1920s-present)
SEMIOTIC – study of Signs
Studies the signs and types of representation used by humans to express feelings, ideas, thoughts and ideologies.
• Study “texts” (can be images, words, or both)
• Text is an assemblage of signs (words, images, sounds) constructed and interpreted with reference to conventions of a genre and in particular medium.

12. SEMIOTICS Way to study/read text and images
•Denotation & Connotation
 • Sign = signifier & signified
– Depends on social, historical and cultural
context
– Depends on context of presentation
– Depends on viewers reception
Hidden Meanings of famous LOGOS

13. Linguistic Structuralism SEMIOTIC – study of Signs
Ferdinand de Saussure
A Swiss  linguistand semiotician whose ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments both in linguistics and semiology in the 20th century
Language is based on a
– Signifier : the word, sound,
visual appearance of the word
 – Signified: its meaning,
the underlying concept
Signs are largely arbitrary
Sign doesn't’t carry meaning, the meaning comes from the relation of difference (A is A because it’s not B) and nor reference

14. Charles Sanders Peirce
An American philosopher, logician, known for his contributions in semiotics and as "the father of pragmatism".  
SIGN and MEANING
There are three relationships between
a sign (referent) and its meaning
• Icon (resemblance to actual thing)
 • Index (connection of facts: often cause-effect)
• Symbol (depend on how interpreted)
Representation= symbol: to stand for, to suggest an idea, visual image, belief, action

15. SEMIOTICS Semiotics: the study of signs Semiotics Of The Tie
Semiotics Of The Tie

16. Roland Barthes
A French literary theorist, philosopher, linguist, critic, and semiotician. 
‘The Death of the Author’
Meaning exists not only in
production but reception
The signifier “I” is a ‘shifter’; that moves from one speaker to the other speaker as each lays claim to it
Linguistically, the author is never more than the instance writing’

17. Semiotics Barthes’ MYTH
Hidden set of rules and conventions through which meanings, which are specific to certain groups, are made to seem universal and given for a whole society
Is a form of language that creates an alternative reality; is a tool to excess the reality
It converts history into nature. And the task of the mytholographer is to rediscover the element of history that motivates the myth, to elicit what is specific to a given time and place, asking what interests are served by the naturalization of particular convictions and values.

18. ‘Myth Construction’
Innoculation: Acknowledging a small detail to mask larger problem
Prevention of History: Removing an object from its place and reality and thus its freedom
Identification: sameness and the destruction of difference
Neither-Norism: balance created by weighting 2 sides against each other (nihilism)

19. MEANING and NIHILISM
Nihilism- philosophical doctrine suggesting the negation of one or more meaningful aspects of life
Moral Nihilists- assert that morality doesn’t inherently exist, and that any established moral values are invented/ brought out by a plan
Nihilism is also associated with Anomia: general mood of despair at the perceived pointlessness of existence that one may develop realizing there are no necessary norms, rules, and laws.

20. 4.Marxist Criticism and Social Ideology (1930s-present)
one type of symbolic system among others
a set of doctrines, beliefs, or ideas that form the basis of a political, economic, or other system which attempts to put the experience of the world into some order. The result in Marxist thought is the distortion of reality to maintain authority over it.

21. Karl Marx German philosopher, economist,sociologist,
“Ruling Class/Ruling Ideas”
Ideology is the ideas of the ruling class
that are in any epoch the ruling idea;
the class which is the ruling material force
of society is at the same time its ruling intellectual force

22. Louis Althusser
a philosopher, known as “structural Marxist” was critical of many aspects of structuralism.
ISA and RSA
ISA- Ideological State Apparatuses
RSA Repressive State Apparatuses
In order to produce its productive power, state applies control through ideologies/ rituals (ISA) and if needed through repression/violence (RSA)

23. Althusser’s Interpellation
A process by which ideology pre-defines individuals/ constructs them (recreation/birth)
Secondary status of subject as mere effect of social relation
Idealized future
Identifiable characters
AT & T Ad with Interpellation

24. Psychoanalytic Theory
Was established in 19th century by Freud
Life events, early experiences (as a child) shape our psychoanalytic development
Psychoanalytic problems are natural and unavoidable, but it is important to identify and understand them to resolve.

25. Psychoanalytic Theory
1. Adopts methods of “ reading” employed by Freud’s ideas: to understand texts we need to understand the author
Argues that literary texts like dreams express the “ secret unconscious desires and anxieties of the author”
A literary work is a manifestation of the author’s own neuroses
Texts reclaim the identity of the author
__________________
2. Consciously embedding the psychoanalytic concepts in the text and in the personalities /actions of characters is intended to connect/refer to readers aiming to evoke the desire to re-examine the self and to be willing to change.

26. Basic Concepts of Psychoanalytic Theory
FAMILY- is an important source of our early emotional experiences (both, those that affirm or harm).
Here our sense of self and the way we relate
to others is developed
REPRESSION and UNCONSCIOUS
At times, we might not know the source of our emotional problems, since we tend to repress the most distressing emotions.
This could be shown through repetitive self-destructive behavior (choosing bad friends, displaying inappropriate social behavior, etc.)

27. Basic Concepts of (contd.)
The DEFENSES- are means by which we keep ourselves from becoming conscious of the experiences we repressed.
During childhood, used to protect us emotionally, but can later be more destructive
Some common defenses:
Denial- believing that painful event didn’t happen
Avoidance-avoiding what can recall the repressed memory/experience
Displacement- taking out negative emotions about a person on someone else to relieve pain and anger w/o understanding the real cause of the repressed feelings
Projection- denial of self problems by projecting those on others- blame for denial; believing that someone else has the problem we want to deny.

28. CORE ISSUE Very related to “Home Alone “ protagonist Low self-esteem
Unstable
Fear of abundance
Dreams as manifestations of the repressed through certain symbols

29. Sigmund Freud - an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis Id, Ego, and Super-ego
These are the three parts of the psychic apparatus where the interaction of our mental life is described.
Id is the set of uncoordinated human basic instinctual drives
only component of personality that is present from birth is in the unconscious
the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, impulses, particularly sexual and aggressive drives the tendency to seek immediate gratification of any impulse
(Ex: if hungry, grab the food of the others at a restaurant)

30. Superego plays the critical and moralizing role
reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly taught by parents applying their guidance and influence
stops one from doing certain things that one's id may want to do. The super-ego aims for perfection
includes the individual's ego ideals, spiritual goals, and the "conscience" that criticizes and prohibits his or her drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions
Stops/ punishes misbehavior with feelings of guilt
(Ex: sense of being accused as a thief, one will not
grab what doesn’t belong to him/her)
(Ex: having extra-marital affairs)

31. Ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego
is the organized part of the personality structure that includes defensive, perceptual, intellectual cognitive, and executive functions
conscious awareness resides in the ego
originally, used to mean a sense of self, but later revised to mean a set of psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance, reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and memory
(Ex: to resist the urge to grab other people's
belongings; instead to purchase those items)

32. Jacques Lacan  a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist ,who has been called "the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud".
The theory of Lacan involves the following ideas:
striving for individual identity
motif to achieve the wholeness of self
continuity of signifier and signified is never possible
dissatisfaction, the lack of establishing one’s own identity
in order to establish one’s own self, to identify his/her own desires and feel valuable, a person starts to compare with the “other”
unable to reveal and construct one’s own identity, this lack and inability psychologically may depresses a person to the negative

33. Imaginary Order/ Mirror Stage
Identification of self-image
Birth of “Ideal Ego”
Being fractured, sense of loss and desire of wholeness
Symbolic Stage/ Order
Identification of self through language
Language gives identity, assigns “I”
Given name- sign of “self” given by others
Real Order is the authentic, unchangeable truth
the impossible
self/other
relation of the subject to the real