1. Crust-Mantle Relationships
Earth’s Topography
The change in elevation, or topography, of the crust isn’t obvious from most maps and globes.

2. Crust-Mantle Relationships
Most of Earth’s elevations cluster around two modes: 0 to 1 km above sea level and 4 to 5 km below sea level.
These two modes reflect the basic differences in density and thickness between continental and oceanic crust.

3. Crust-Mantle Relationships
The different densities of basalt and granite displace different amounts of the mantle, and these rock types thus float at different heights.
The slightly higher density of oceanic crust (basalt) causes it to displace more of the mantle than the same thickness of continental crust (granite) does.
Continental crust extends deeper into the mantle because of its thickness, and it rises higher above Earth’s surface than oceanic crust because of its lower density.

4. Crust-Mantle Relationships
Isostasy
Isostasy is a condition of equilibrium that describes the displacement of the mantle by Earth’s continental and oceanic crust.
In a state of isostatic equillibrium, the force of gravity on the mass of crust involved is balanced by the upward force of buoyancy.
Mountains have thick roots that buoyantly support the overlaying material.
According to the principle of isostasy, parts of the crust will rise or subside until these parts are buoyantly supported by their roots.

5. Isostasy Isostasy and Erosion
Crust-Mantle Relationships
Isostasy
Isostasy and Erosion
As mountains rise above Earth’s surface, deep roots form until isostatic equilibrium is achieved and the mountains are buoyantly supported.
As peaks are eroded, mass decreases, and the roots become smaller.
Isostatic rebound is the slow process of the crust’s rising as the result of the removal of overlying material.

6. Crust-Mantle Relationships
Isostasy and Erosion
Seafloor structures, such as seamounts, must also be in isostatic equilibrium with the mantle.
Elevation of Earth’s crust depends upon the thickness of the crust as well as its density.
Mountain roots can be many times as deep as a mountain is high.

7. Orogeny Orogeny is the process cycle that forms all mountain ranges.
Convergent-Boundary Mountains
Orogeny
Orogeny is the process cycle that forms all mountain ranges.
Orogeny results in broad, linear regions of deformation known as orogenic belts, most of which are associated with plate boundaries.
Convergent boundaries are the location of the greatest variety and the tallest orogenic belts.
The compressive forces at these boundaries may cause the folding, faulting, metamorphism, and igneous intrusions that are characteristic of orogenic belts.

8. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence
Convergent-Boundary Mountains
Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence
When an oceanic plate converges with another oceanic plate, one plate descends into the mantle to create a subduction zone.
As parts of the subducted plate melt, magma is forced upward to form a series of volcanic peaks called an island arc complex.
Basaltic and andesitic magmas rise to the surface and erupt to form the island arc complex.
Sediments around the complex can be uplifted, folded, faulted, and thrust against the island arc to form a mass of sedimentary and island-arc volcanic rocks.

9. Oceanic-Continental Convergence
Convergent-Boundary Mountains
Oceanic-Continental Convergence
Convergence along Oceanic-continental boundaries creates subduction zones and trenches.
The edge of the continental plate is forced upward, marking the beginning of orogeny.
Compressive forces may cause the continental crust to fold and thicken, forming mountains with deep roots.
As it melts, the subducting oceanic plate produces magma that gives rise to granitic intrusions and volcanoes fueled by andesitic magma.
Sediments shoved against the continent form a jumble of folded, faulted, and metamorphosed rocks.

10. Continental-Continental Convergence
Convergent-Boundary Mountains
Continental-Continental Convergence
Because of the relatively low density of continental crust, the energy associated with a continental-continental collision is transferred to the crust involved.
Compressional forces break the crust into thick slabs that are thrust onto each other along low-angle faults, possibly doubling the thickness of the deformed crust.
The magma that forms as a result of continental-continental mountain building forms granite batholiths.
Another common characteristic of mountains that form when two continents collide is the presence of marine sedimentary rock near the mountains’ summits.

11. The Appalachian Mountains–A Case Study
Convergent-Boundary Mountains
The Appalachian Mountains–A Case Study
The geology of the Appalachian mountain range, which is located in the eastern United States, has been the subject of many studies.
Geologists have divided the Appalachian Mountain Belt into several distinct regions, including the Valley and Ridge, the Blue Ridge, and the Piedmont Provinces.
Each region is characterized by rocks that show different degrees of deformation.

12. The Early Appalachians
Convergent-Boundary Mountains
The Early Appalachians
About 700 to 800 million years ago, ancestral North America separated from ancestral Africa along two divergent boundaries to form two oceans with a continental fragment between them.
The ancestral Atlantic Ocean was located off the western coast of ancestral Africa and a shallow, marginal sea formed along the eastern coast of ancestral North America.

13. Convergent-Boundary Mountains
700–600 Million Years Before Present (M.Y.B.P.) Convergence causes the ancestral Atlantic Ocean to begin to close. An island arc develops east of ancestral North America.

14. The Early Appalachians
Convergent-Boundary Mountains
The Early Appalachians
500–400 M.Y.B.P. The continental fragment, which eventually becomes the Blue Ridge Province, becomes attached to ancestral North America.

15. Convergent-Boundary Mountains
M.Y.B.P. The island arc becomes attached to ancestral North America and the continental fragment is thrust farther onto ancestral North America. The arc becomes the Piedmont Province.

16. Convergent-Boundary Mountains
M.Y.B.P.  Ancestral Africa collides with ancestral North America to close the ancestral Atlantic Ocean. Compression forces the Blue Ridge and Piedmont rocks farther west, and the folded Valley and Ridge Province forms.

17. Divergent-Boundary Mountains
Other Types of Mountains
Divergent-Boundary Mountains
Ocean ridges are regions of very broad uplift that seems to be related to the rising convection cells in the mantle.
Magma is less dense than surrounding mantle material, and thus it is forced upward, where it warms the overlying lithosphere.
The lithosphere along a divergent boundary bulges upward to form a gently sloping mountain range.

18. Ocean ridges are composed mainly of igneous rocks.
Other Types of Mountains
Ocean ridges are composed mainly of igneous rocks.
As tectonic plates separate along an ocean ridge, hot mantle material is forced upward and accumulates in a magma chamber beneath the ridge.
From the chamber, the mixture intrudes into the overlying rock to form a series of vertical dikes that resemble a stack of index cards standing on edge.
Pillow basalts are igneous rocks, resembling a pile of sandbags, that are formed when magma pushes through the dikes and erupts onto the seafloor.

19. Nonboundary Mountains
Other Types of Mountains
Nonboundary Mountains
Some mountains and peaks form in places far removed from tectonic boundaries.
Three nonboundary types of mountains are uplifted mountains, fault-block mountains, and some volcanoes.

20. Other Types of Mountains
Uplifted Mountains
Uplifted mountains are mountains that form when large regions of Earth have been slowly forced upward as a unit.

21. The cause of large-scale regional uplift is not well understood.
Other Types of Mountains
The cause of large-scale regional uplift is not well understood.
It is possible that warmer regions of the mantle heat portions of the lithosphere, causing the density of the crust to decrease, which results in slow uplift.
Another possible cause is upward movement in the mantle, which lifts regions of the crust without causing much deformation.
The Adirondack Mountains in New York are an example of uplifted mountains.

22. Fault-Block Mountains
Other Types of Mountains
Fault-Block Mountains
Fault-block mountains form when large pieces of crust are tilted, uplifted, or dropped downward between large faults.
The Basin and Range Province of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, as well as the Grand Tetons in Wyoming, are examples of fault- block mountains.

23. Other Types of Mountains
Volcanic Peaks
Volcanoes that form over hot spots are generally solitary peaks that form far from tectonic plate boundaries.
The shield volcanoes that make up the state of Hawaii are volcanic peaks that formed as the Pacific Plate moved over a hot spot in the mantle.