1. Chapter 1
Q: Explain SLA

2. Q: What are the goals of SLA?

3. Q: External factors of SLA

4. Q: Internal factors of SLA

5. Q: Discuss the two case studies

6. Q: Why do we have similar studies with different findings
Q: Why do we have similar studies with different findings? (Methodological issues)

7. Issues in SLA The Natural Order hypothesis (Krashen, 1987) The acquisition of grammatical structures occurs in a predictable sequence. Although similar, the order of acquisition often differs between first and second languages. Regardless of L1, all L2 learners appear to follow the same predictable order( e.g., yes-no Qs before wh-Qs).

8. The role of age in L2 acquisition (Krashen, Long, & Scarcells, 1979)
Issues in SLA
The role of age in L2 acquisition (Krashen, Long, & Scarcells, 1979)

9. Critical Period Hypothesis
There is a fixed span of years during which language learning can take place naturally and effortlessly, and after which it is not possible to be completely successful.

10. The optimum period for language acquisition falls within the firs ten years of life, when the brain retains its plasticity (Penfield & Roberts, 1959) Some learners who start learning an L2 after puberty achieve a level of competence indistinguishable from that of native speakers (Birdsong 1992; Bongaerts 1999; Moselle 1994)

11. Rate of acquisition in the early stages of syntactic and morphological development
---adults > older children > younger children
2. Acquirers who begin natural exposure to a second language during childhood achieve higher L2 proficiency than those beginning as adults

12. The effects of age on the rate of L2 learning
Snow&Hoefnagel-Höhle (1978)
Natural acquisition of Dutch (English speakers)
8-10 children/ adolescents/ adults
morphology&syntax: adolescents>adults>children
grammar differences diminished over time as the children began to catch up

13. Older learners progressed faster
2. Munoz (2006)
Instructed setting
Learners of English (Spanish speakers) who began their study at the age of 8, 11, 14
Data collected after 200hrs of instruction/416/ 726hr
Older learners progressed faster
Younger learners did not catch up over time

14. 3. Olsen & Samuels (1973)
Adults outperform children in the short time
American English-speaking adolescents and adults performed better than children after 10 German pronunciation sessions(15-25 min each)

15. 3. Cochrane (1980)
Adults outperform children in formal learning
Japanese children and adults to discriminate /r/ &/l/
Naturalistic exposure: adults (245hrs) children (193hrs)
Children outperformed the adults
However,
When they were taught the phonemic distinction, the adults were better

16. The greater cognitive development of older learners is advantageous where explicit learning is concerned (e.g., traditional grammar tests).
However, implicit learning is a slow and gradual process. The advantage may not show up until after sufficient exposure to the L2 in naturalistic setting.
School-based studies cannot address this ‘age’ issue as formal learning does not provide sufficient exposure (Singleton, 1989)

17. The effects of age on ultimate achievement
Oyama (1976)
Test: nativeness of the learners’ accents (immigrated at ages ranging from 6-20 and lived in USA for 5-18 years)
A strong effect for ‘age of arrival’
No effect for ‘number of years’ in USA

18. Johnson & Newport (1989)
Koreans and Chinese immigrants
Age of arrival: 3-39
Grammatical judgement test
The older the learners were on arrival, the lower their scores

19. Cummins & Nakajima (1987)
Acquisition of L2 literacy skills
Japanese children (in Grades 2-8 in Toronto)
The older the students were on arrival in Canada, the more likely they were to have better L2 reading & writing skills

20. General conclusions
1. Adult learners have an initial advantage where rate of learning is concerned, particularly in grammar. They will eventually be overtaken by child learners who receive enough exposure to the L2. This is less likely to happen in instructional than in naturalistic settings.

21. General conclusions
2. Child learners are more likely to acquire a native accent and grammar than adult learners but a native accent and grammar is possible for at least some adult learners.

22. General conclusions
3.There is no agreement as to whether there is a critical period for learning an L2. It may differ for pronunciation and for grammar. There are also disagreements even among supporters of CP. It is safe to say that the ability to learn an L2 declines with increasing age.

23. Issues in SLA Fossilization (Selinker 1972)
A permanent cessation in learning before the learner has attained target language norms.
It is possible for a learner to be fossilized in some aspects of the L2 but to continue to develop in others.

24. Issues in SLA Fossilization (Selinker 1972)
Cognitive level: It involves underlying mechanisms that produce permanently stabilized IL forms
Empirical level: It involves those stabilized IL forms that remain in learner speech or writing over time, no matter what the input or what the learner does.

25. What may cause fossilization?
lack of attention
inappropriate learning strategy
inability to notice input-output discrepancies
false automatization
reluctance to restructure
processing constraints
a tendency to focus on content rather than form
neural entrenchment