1. Introduction to Qualitative Research
RCS 6740
7/26/04

2. Review of Qualitative Research
According to Taylor and Bogdan (1984), two major theoretical perspectives underlie much of social science research. They are:
a. the positivist tradition, which “seeks facts or causes of social phenomena apart from the subjective states of individuals” (Taylor & Bogdan, 1984, p. 1),
b. the phenomenological perspective, which “is committed to understanding social phenomena from the actor’s own perspective”.

3. Review of Qualitative Research Cont.
Quantitative Research
generally stems from a positivist tradition
Qualitative Research
generally follows the phenomenological tradition

4. Review of Qualitative Research Cont.
Qualitative Research: Data is collected from observations and interviews. Can be conducted in a lab or in the field.
The qualitative approach yields data expressed in non-numerical terms using language and images.
The qualitative approach would include summaries of discussions, interviews, and video- or audio-taping of behaviors.

5. Review of Qualitative Research Cont.
A qualitative description of observations would focus on patterns and themes (Grounded Theory) that emerge from language or images.
Example: A common theme that emerged from talking to the students was that they needed to work and would continue to do so even if their grades suffered.

6. Review of Qualitative Research Cont.
a. Ethnographies, in which the research studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting during a prolonged period;
b. Grounded theories, in which the researcher attempts to derive a theory by using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information;
c. Case studies, in which the researcher explores a single entity or phenomenon (‘the case’) bounded by time and activity ; and
d. Phenomenological studies, in which human experiences are examined through the detailed descriptions of the people being studies. (Creswell, 1994, pp )

7. Review of Qualitative Research Cont.
Quantitative Research
positivistic
Hypotheses/deductive
particularistic
objective/outsider centered
outcome oriented
natural science worldview
attempt to control variables
goal: find facts & causes
static reality assumed; relative constancy in life
verification oriented
confirmatory
Qualitative Research
phenomenological
inductive
holistic
subjective/insider centered
process oriented
anthropological worldview
relative lack of control
goal: understand participant's view
dynamic reality assumed; "slice of life"
discovery oriented
explanatory

8. Review of Qualitative Research Cont.
Quantitative Research Designs:
Experimental
Quasi-Experimental
Ex post facto
Correlational
Descriptive
Time Series/Single Subject
Qualitative Research Designs:
Ethnographic
Grounded theory
Case study
Phenomenological
Historical
Philosophical

9. Validity in Qualitative Research
In qualitative research, validity is “the correctness or credibility of a description, conclusion, explanation, interpretation, or other sort of account” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 87).
“Validity ... depends on the relationship of your conclusions to the real world, and there are no methods that can assure you that you have adequately grasped those aspects of the world that you are studying” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 86).

10. Validity in Qualitative Research Cont.
Whereas quantitative researchers uses methods and designs to address threats to validity in advance of the research, qualitative researchers “must try to rule out most validity threats after the research has begun, using evidence collected during the research itself to make these alternative hypotheses implausible” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 88).

11. Types of Validity in Qualitative Research
Description: “The main threat to valid description, in the sense of describing what you saw and heard, is the inaccuracy or incompleteness of the data” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 89).
Interpretation: “The main threat to valid interpretation is imposing one's own framework or meaning, rather than understanding the perspective of the people studied and the meanings they attach to their words and actions” (Maxwell, 1996, p ).

12. Types of Validity in Qualitative Research Cont.
Theory: “The most serious threat to the theoretical validity of an account is not collecting or paying attention to discrepant data, or not considering alternative explanations or understandings of the phenomena you are studying” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 90).
Generalization: Internal generalization, which is the type of interest to qualitative researchers, “refers to the generalizability of a conclusion within the setting or group studies” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 97). It is the qualitative analog of the quantitative statistical conclusion validity.

13. Qualitative Validity Tests
1. Modus Operandi Approach: “Searching for clues as to whether or not [threats to validity] took place and were involved in the phenomenon in question” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 92).
2. Searching for Discrepant Evidence and Negative Cases.
3. Triangulation: “Collecting information from a diverse range of individuals and settings, using a variety of methods” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 93).

14. Qualitative Validity Tests Cont.
4. Feedback: “Soliciting feedback from others is an extremely useful strategy for identifying validity threats, your own biases and assumptions, and flaws in your logic or methods” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 94).
5. Member Checks: “Systematically soliciting feedback about one's data and conclusions from the people you are studying” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 94).
6. Rich Data: Collecting “data that are detailed and complete enough that they provide a full and revealing picture of what is going on” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 95).

15. Qualitative Validity Tests Cont.
7. Quasi-Statistics: “The use of simple numerical results that can be readily derived from the data” (Maxwell, 1996, p. 95).
8. Comparison: Either through the data (e.g., multi-site studies) or through the literature.
9. Data saturation: Sampling until saturated (no new information).