1. Everything’s An Argument Chapter 2 Reading and Writing Arguments
Andrea A. Lunsford
John J. Ruskiewicz
Keith Walters

2. Connecting as Reader or Writer
Writers do not write in a cultural vacuum.
Writers’ works are influenced by who they are.
Race
Religion
Gender
Ethnicity
Class
Intelligence

3. Must think about readers’ perceptions, values, possible prejudices.
Readers’ perceptions of writer influence their reception of what has been written.
Must think about readers’ perceptions, values, possible prejudices.
Establish some connection with readers.
Familiarity
Presenting yourself as authority

4. Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed
and planted, and gathered into barns, and no
man could head me. And ain’t I a woman?... I
have borne thirteen children, and seen most all
sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my
mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me. And
ain’t I a woman?
Sojourner Truth
“Ain’t I a Woman?”

5. Understanding Lines of Argument
Four Types of Appeals
Arguments from the Heart
Arguments based on Values
Arguments based on Character
Arguments based on Fact and Reason

6. Finding Arguments from the Heart
Designed to appeal to the readers’ emotions and feelings.
Can cause readers to think more carefully about subject.
Persuading reader not to drink and drive
telling a story of a teen or young mother killed by drunk driver

7. Sometimes we have to be wary because emotions can lead to unwise or impulsive judgments.
Advertising
Driving a certain car will make you feel superior to others.
Wearing a certain brand of clothing will make you feel good about yourself because you are in style

8. Finding Arguments Based on Values
Closely related to emotional appeals
Writer either
Asks reader to live up to higher principles, respected traditions, or new values
Complains that they have not done so
Close ties with ceremonial arguments.
Define or celebrate values/ideals of a society
Be aware of the values/ideals of community.

9. Finding Arguments Based on Character
As writer, must seem honest, sincere, and trustworthy.
Look for evidence of character in arguments
Who is the author?
Is writer an authority on topic/knowledgeable about topic?
Is evidence presented full/complete, not slanted to writer’s agenda?
Does writer acknowledge and address opposition?
Are sources documented?

10. As author, you must consider
Language
Organization & structure
Sense of authority

11. Finding Arguments Based on Facts & Reason
Writer must provide enough evidence to support argument.
Test all assumptions and claims.
Question every source and authority cited.
data and information from reliable sources

12. Making a Claim Claim: statement of belief or truth
Can be plainly stated (more traditional arguments).
Can be inferred (in stories, anecdotes, etc.).
Claims must be attached to reasons that support it and premises that uphold it to be an argument.
Can have several claims in one essay.
Look at relationship among them

13. Giving an Argument Shape
Arguments must have logical structure, even if appeal uses emotion, values, or character.
Aristotle asserted arguments had only 2 parts:
Statement (claim)
Proof (evidence)

14. Giving an Argument Style
Have to think of the way the evidence is presented.
Even logical, well-planned argument can be boring.
Have to tailor your style to the topic
What is most appropriate
Style can tell readers what to expect
Examples on pg. 40
1st is straightforward and to-the-point
2nd is humorous/tongue-in-cheek

15. Composing a Rhetorical Analysis
Who is the audience for this argument? How does the argument connect with its audience?
What is the purpose of this argument? What does it hope to achieve?
What are the contexts—social, political, historical, cultural—for this argument? How does the argument fit into the world? Whose interests does it serve? Who gains or loses by it?

16. What appeals does the argument use?
What emotional arguments or techniques does it use?
What value does it invoke or count on?
What authorities does the argument rely on or appeal to? Who is making the argument, and are they trustworthy?

17. What facts are used in the argument?
What claims are advanced in the argument? What issues are raised and which are ignored or, perhaps, silenced?
What shape does the argument take? How are arguments presented or arranged? What media do the arguments use?
How does the language or style of the argument work to persuade an audience?