1. Construct
an idea/concept constructed by the scientist to explain events observed, e.g. self-concept; intelligence; social identity
not necessarily clearly observable or measurable;
an abstract variable

2. Variable from Conceptual to Operational;
from abstract (construct) to measurable (indicators);
can be singular or plural
can have different levels of meanings (from concepts to indicators)

3. Deprivation Physical Economic Social Political social isolation
Concept
Physical
Economic
Social
Political
social isolation
absence of socially valued roles
lack of social skills
Questions to measure social skills, e.g.,
introversion/extroversion scales,
assertiveness scale
social self-concept
popularity with peers
Measures of social isolation, eg.,
no. of friends
no. of organisation involvements
contacts with neighbours
Questions to determine social roles
Indicators

4. Models representations of the complex reality of the real world
not necessarily true or verifiable
usually presented in a structural form
can indicate a content structure or a process structure

5. Shavelson et al.’s (1976) model of self-concept
Example of Content Model
General
Self-Concept
General:
Academic and Non-Academic Self-Concept:
Academic
Self-Concept
Social
Self-Concept
Emotional
Self-Concept
Physical
Self-Concept
Subareas of Self-Concept:
English
History
Math
Science
Peers
Significant
Others
Particular
Emotional
States
Physical
Ability
Physical
Appearance
Evaluation of
Behavior in
Specific
Situations:
Shavelson et al.’s (1976) model of self-concept

6. Example of Process Model
parenting
self-esteem & self-concept
anti-social behaviour
peers relationship
academic achievements

7. Types of Variables
Variable - an attribute (characteristic /property) of a person or object that can change or differ
e.g. sex, motivation, life happiness
Independent Variable - to be manipulated, antecedent, has effect on the dependent (observed) variable,
e.g. medical treatment, learning strategy, income, anxiety level, etc

8. Types of Variables (contin.)
Dependent Variable - to be observed /measured, dependent on the experimental or treatment condition
Confounding/extraneous Variable - distorts or masks the IV effects on DV, to be controlled
Control Variable - to neutralize confounding effects, to be held constant

9. Conceptualization
Purpose: exploratory, descriptive, explanatory
Choose a strategy (experiment, survey, case study)
Cross-sectional /longitudinal design?
Qualitative /Quantitative methods
Operationalization

10. Validity of Research Does social anxiety negatively affect memory?
Any confounding variable?
Memory
Anxiety

11. Internal Validity
The extent to which the outcomes result from the study itself (i.e. the experimental conditions, manipulation) but not from other conditions not systematically treated.

12. External Validity
The extent that findings of a study can be generalized other than those observed.
Counteract Validity Threats
Use control group: placebo /neutral condition
Random assignment of subjects/participants
Pre-test (if random assignment not feasible)
True Experimental Designs
not always feasible in real world -
So, use quasi-experimental or ex post facto designs
Non-experimental designs? Naturalistic Designs?