1. Theory in the Practice of Counseling Stephen Southern

2. THEORY DEVELOPMENT

3. Inductive Reasoning Observing specific cases or events
Describing these “particulars”
Asserting an hypothesis
Conducting a test
Obtaining results
Generalizing from findings
Building models and theories

4. Deductive Reasoning
Understanding is a function of current state of cumulative knowledge
Developing theories from one’s understanding of events
Deriving an hypothesis from a relevant theory and testing it
Accounting for results based on theory

5. Scientific Method Observation Question Hypothesis Prediction Testing
Results
Analysis
Discussion
Replication
Decision-making
Control

6. Hypotheses
Simple
Empirical
Falsifiable

7. How Theories Evolve
Understanding or knowledge base (e.g., review of the literature)
Sound reasoning
Intuition and discovery
Analogizing
Statistical inference
Replication and generalization

8. Theory Defined
Theory is a conceptual framework that explains existing observations and generates hypotheses about new observations

9. What is a Theory? (Peterson & Nisenholz, 1999, p. 159)
Theory is a road map of the world, but the map is not the territory
Theory provides structure from which to understand what we are doing
Theory is an explanation for events that can be tested
Theory helps us organize our actions

10. Formal Counseling Theory (Patterson, 1986)
Set of assumptions regarding counseling or behavior change
Set of definitions of ideas and concepts stated in behavioral or observational terms
Concepts are related, some are cause and effect relationships
Hypotheses constructed from the assumptions, definitions, and concepts can be tested through research

11. Arguments for Theory (Peterson & Nisenholz, 1999, p. 160)
People have implicit theories that should be made explicit
Counselors cannot function unless they are able to bring some order to events they observe
Helps counselors understand the process of behavior change, enabling them to describe and make predictions

12. Arguments Against Theory (Peterson & Nisenholz, 1999, p. 161)
Theories constrict counselors and clients, limiting behavior change
Theories tend to indoctrinate or influence people
Most counselors do not really use theory in the work they do
There is lack of evidence that any one theory is “right” or produces better outcomes than a competing theory

13. THEORY IN COUNSELING & PSYCHOTHERAPY

14. Theory Construction Command of a relevant literature
Professional practice experience
Ongoing professional presentation and communication
Quantitative and qualitative research
Personal experience and reflection

15. Personal Practice Theory
Population
Problem
Setting
Self of therapist
Lifespan career development

16. ECLECTICISM AND PSYCHOTHERAPY INTEGRATION

17. Proliferation of Counseling Theories
With the creation of psychoanalysis, there was basically one theory; however, Freud’s students quickly began to modify the classic model
The Psychotherapy Handbook (Herink, 1980) listed 250 different types of therapy
Corsini & Wedding (2005) reported more than 400 approaches

18. Four Forces in Psychotherapy (Peterson & Nisenholz, 1999, p. 166)
Psychodynamic
Behavioral (Cognitive-Behavioral)
Humanistic-Existential
Transpersonal

19. Eclecticism in Psychotherapy: Is Integration Possible?
Little progress has been made in developing a single comprehensive system of psychotherapy (Patterson, 1989).

20. Obstacles to Theory Integration
Coherent theoretical structures do not exist
Irreconcilable differences in theoretical constructs
Practitioners perceive theory as too abstract and irrelevant

21. The Original Challenge
“What treatment, by whom, is more effective for this individual with that specific problem and under which set of circumstances” (Paul, 1967, p. 111)

22. THE ONGOING CHALLENGE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY INTEGRATION

23. Psychotherapy Integration in the Postmodern World
Various views and functions corrected by ongoing dialogue (Woolfolk & Murphy, 2004)

24. Divergent Views
Objectivism reflects modernism; True and precise categories of mental illness and treatment can be known; Examples of objectivism include cognitive-behavior therapy and DSM-IV
Normativism reflects existentialism; Cultural norms determine psychopathology and psychotherapy; Normative views expressed by Thomas Szasz and Carl Jung

25. Divergent Views
Objectivists assert that psychopathology represents malfunction of psychological mechanisms that can be diagnosed and treated
Normativists argue that any conception of mental disorder is fundamentally evaluative according to current cultural norms

26. How to Determine Malfunction
Etiological function: the view that there are defects in the nervous system
Propensity function: the view that lack of success or adjustment is related to a given environment
Cummins function: the view that malfunction is practical and systemic; when a known cause cannot contribute to a specified effect

27. Psychotherapy and Culture
Psychotherapy absorbs and reflects the culture of which it is a part while simultaneously putting its imprint on society

28. Psychotherapy and Modernity
In the 20th century, psychotherapy has been linked to efficiency and effectiveness
Implied morality in means and ends
In the USA, psychotherapy is a means for pursuing American individualism
A “communitarian critique” argues that therapy should take into account the collective context and the greater good of the community

29. Psychotherapy and Post-modernism
Post-modernism is a healthy reaction against the tyranny of reason in rationalism
Post-modern perspectives of contextualism and pluralism apply to the case of psychotheray
Psychotherapy integration is a process characterized by dialogue and dialectics

30. Contextualism
Psychotherapy concepts can be understood only within the linguistic, theoretical, and ideological frameworks in which they are embedded (Safran & Messer, 1997).

31. Pluralism
There is no single theoretical or methodological approach that is pre-eminent and no one integrative system toward which psychotherapy is evolving (Safran & Messer, 1997).

32. Theory & “The Other”
Identity emerges through construction of “the other” depriving other individuals of legitimate standing
In order to appreciate other theoretical stances it is helpful to use the anthropological methods of immersion, curiosity, and astonishment

33. Metatheoretical Integration
Psychoanalytic therapy is guided by a tragic sense of reality in which people are subject to unknown forces which can be only partially ameliorated
Behavior therapy falls within the comic view where conflicts are treated as external and readily resolvable
Humanistic therapy is characterized by the romantic view which prizes individuality, spontaneity, and unlimited potentials

34. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOTHERAPY INTEGRATION

35. Factors Contributing to Psychotherapy Integration
Managed care; demand for brief, empirically-supported treatment
Confusion and fragmentation with the proliferation of schools of thought
Realization that no given approach could handle all clinical cases
Focus on practical solutions to specific clinical problems

36. Factors Contributing to Psychotherapy Integration
Increasing experience of therapists with approaches other than their own
Failure to identify any one theoretical approach that is consistently demonstrated to be more effective than others
Development of interests in common factors across forms of psychotherapy
Existence of professional networks for disseminating knowledge and opinion (e.g., Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy Integration)

37. Phases of Therapeutic Change
Unconscious incompetence
Conscious incompetence
Conscious competence
Unconscious competence
(Goldfried, 2004)

38. Common Change Principles
Expectation that therapy can help
Experience of an optimal therapeutic relationship
Awareness of what is causing problems
Involvement in ongoing reality testing
(Goldfried, 2004)

39. Mechanisms of Change
Integrative psychotherapies are designed to include as many relevant change factors in order to best meet the needs of particular patients (Stricker & Gold, 2003)

40. Modes of Psychotherapy Integration
Technical Eclecticism: most common form of integration with the least investment in theory (e.g., Multimodal Therapy)
Common Factors: effective ingredients in the therapeutic process that are held in common by a group of therapies
Theoretical Integration: most complex and difficult process, frequently assimilating constructs from one or more theories into an extant theory

41. References
Corsini, R.J., & Wedding, D. (2005). Current psychotherapies. (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Goldfried, M.R. (2004). Integrating integratively oriented brief psychotherapy. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 14,

42. References
Gurman, A.S., & Messer, S.B. (2003). Contemporary issues in the theory and practice of psychotherapy: A framework for comparative study. In A.S. Gurman & S.B. Messer (Eds.), Essential psychotherapies: Theory and practice (2nd ed.) (pp. 1-23). New York: Guilford Press.
Herink, R. (Ed.). (1980). The psychotherapy handbook. New York: New American Library.
Patterson, C.H. (1986). Theories of counseling and psychotherapy. (4th ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

43. References
Patterson, C.H. (1989). Eclecticism in psychotherapy: Is integration possible? Psychotherapy, 26,
Peterson, J.V., & Nisenholz, B. (1999). Orientation to counseling. (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Paul, G.L. (1967). Strategy of outcome research in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31,
Safran, J.D., & Messer, S.B. (1997). Psychotherapy integration: A postmodern critique. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 4,

44. References
Stricker, G., & Gold, J. (2003). Integrative approaches to psychotherapy. In A.S. Gurman & S.B. Messer (Eds.), Essential psychotherapies: Theory and practice (2nd ed.) (pp ). New York: Guilford Press.
Woolfolk, R.L., & Murphy, D. (2004). Axiological foundations of psychotherapy. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 14,