1. Avoiding Common Errors of Grammar
One of the most important skills a writer can have is the ability to compose clear, complete sentences. The sentence is the basic unit of communication in all forms of English.
Funk, McMahan, and Day
Elements of Grammar
On these notes pages, references are made to The Craft of Editing (Springer-Verlag, 2000) and The Craft of Scientific Writing, 3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996). If you would like a 60-day evaluation copy of The Craft of Scientific Writing or The Craft of Editing, please go to the following web page:
This first slide is an opening slide for discussion of grammar. Many teachers and students consider discussion of these topics as trivial, but recruiters of engineering students cite knowing the rules of grammar, punctuation, and usage as an important asset. Also some teachers claim that such a study is tiresome, but it is interesting how some of these rules change over the years. These changes cause all sorts of disputes, especially in engineering and science because many engineers and scientists look for rules without exceptions. English is a language of exceptions. Also interesting is how some of these rules depend upon location (the United States versus Great Britain).
Although students in the United States often complain about the difficulty of learning grammar, English actually has few grammatical rules compared with other languages such as German. Strictly speaking, grammar refers to the order of words to produce meaningful sentences. What’s probably most difficult about English is usage because English is such a hodgepodge of other languages. (Craft of Scientific Writing, Appendix A; Craft of Editing, Chapter 3, Appendix)

2. Not all mechanical errors bother readers in the same way
Errors that
disturb
run-on sentence
its/it’s
spell checker ignored
Errors that
distract
missing intro comma
faulty parallelism
unclear pronoun ref
Not all mechanical errors are created equal. (The Craft of Editing, Chapter 3)
Errors that few even notice
different from/than
contraction
split infinitive

3. The most important aspect of grammar is understanding what a sentence is
Sentence: A sentence is group of words with a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.
Fragment: A fragment being a group of words that either is missing a subject or a verb or does not express a complete thought.
Information about eliminating run-on sentences and fragments in scientific writing can be found on pages 111 and 129 in The Craft of Editing and page 259 in The Craft of Scientific Writing. Grammar exercises #1 and #3 focus on these errors (
Run-on: A run-on is two or more independent clauses that are not joined properly, for instance, a common mistake is to have a comma between the clauses.

4. Which are sentences (S), fragments (F), or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For example, thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems. RO S
With mechanics (grammar, punctuation, and usage), I have a bias as far as the most egregious error that a student can make, and that error is not understanding what constitutes a sentence. The sentence is the fundamental unit of expression in professional writing. If a student does not understand what constitutes a sentence, then he or she is far behind as being able to communicate as a professional. The most common mistake as far as running on a sentence occurs in the top example. Here, the student does not recognize that “however” is an adverb, and therefore cannot join two independent clauses.
In showing this slide, I cover up the column on the right and ask the students what each group of words is: a sentence, a run-on, or a fragment. Information about eliminating run-on sentences and fragments in scientific writing can be found on pages 111 and 129 in The Craft of Editing and page 259 in The Craft of Scientific Writing. Grammar exercises #1 and #3 focus on these errors (
S / F

5. Shown in yellow are corrections to the errors from the previous slide
Although rubidium has no major uses, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has dramatically increased its concentration this past century.
Possible corrections of errors on previous slide.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. Examples include thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.

6. Note that there are several ways to correct each of these errors
Rubidium has no major uses; however, it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Rubidium has no major uses, but it is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Rubidium has no major uses. This metal, however, is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Alternative corrections of first error.

7. Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages, contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations.
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil voltages and contact ratings, and lack multi-pole configurations.
Another common grammatical error is faulty parallelism. This error commonly occurs with lists. In showing this slide, I cover up the revision, and ask the students to identify where in the following sentence there is a parallelism error. A brief discussion can be found on pages and 259 of The Craft of Scientific Writing and page 123 of The Craft of Editing.
Moreover, an interactive web exercise on faulty parallelism (Grammar #2) can be found at the “Writing Exercises” link on the “Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students” (

8. Making lists parallel is another important aspect of grammar
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and may leave the area.
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes, sores, and wandering tendencies.
Another common grammatical error is faulty parallelism. This error commonly occurs with lists. In showing this slide, I cover up the revisions and ask the students to identify where in the following sentence there is a parallelism error. A brief discussion can be found on pages and 259 of The Craft of Scientific Writing and page 123 of The Craft of Editing.
Moreover, an interactive web exercise on faulty parallelism (Grammar #2) can be found at the “Writing Exercises” link on the “Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students” (
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop rashes and sores, and may leave the area.

9. Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones should be given off among other things.
These proteins indicate, among other things, to the body what hormones should be given off.
In meeting the staff of the Parks Department, the greatest problem was that of water leakage.
Another common grammatical error is the misplacement of modifying phrases or words. Termed a misplace modifier or dangling modifier, this error commonly occurs with introductory participial and prepositional phrases. It also commonly occurs with the word “only.” In showing this slide, I cover up the revisions, and ask the students to identify where in the following sentences there are errors as far as placement of modifiers. A brief discussion can be found on pages in The Craft of Scientific Writing and pages in The Craft of Editing.
Moreover, an interactive web exercise on placement of modifiers (Grammar #2) can be found at the “Writing Exercises” link on the “Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students” (
From the staff of the Parks Department, we learned that the greatest problem was that of water leakage.

10. Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
Because the receiver presented the radiometer with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an titled "Win A Holiday," do not open it. It will erase everything on your hard drive. Forward this out to as many people as you can. This is a very malicious virus and not many people know about it.
it???
Another common grammatical error is ambiguous pronoun reference. This error commonly occurs with the pronouns “it,” “they,” and “this.” In showing this slide, I cover up the right column and ask the students to identify where in the following sentences there are ambiguous pronoun references. A discussion of pronoun references can be found on pages
Moreover, an interactive web exercise on ambiguous pronoun references (Grammar #2) can be found at the “Writing Exercises” link on the “Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students” (
this???
This???

11. , Avoiding Common Errors of Punctuation
Punctuation marks are the traffic signs and signals placed along the reader’s road. They tell him when to slow down and when to stop, and sometimes they warn him of the nature of the road ahead. Traffic engineers do not always agree on what signs should be used and where they should be placed, and neither do writers or editors.
Theodore M. Bernstein
The Careful Writer ,
Opening slide for discussion of punctuation. Many teachers and students consider discussion of these topics as trivial, but it is interesting how some of these rules change over the years and how some of these rules depend upon location. These changes cause all sorts of disputes, especially in engineering and science because many engineers and scientists look for rules without exceptions. English is a language of exceptions. (Craft of Scientific Writing, Appendix A; Craft of Editing, Appendix)

12. Punctuation rules are designed to have sentences be read one way
Colon: a colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition.
Semi-Colon: a semi-colon either joins two independent clauses (closely linked in thought) or separates complex items in a list.
Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate items that cannot be separated by commas.
Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.
This slide presents definitions of different pieces of punctuation. See The Craft of Editing (Appendix) and The Craft of Scientific Writing (pages ).

13. Once the list ends, the sentence ends.
A colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition
We studied five types of marsupials: opossums, bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos.
The laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a new astronomical tool: a gamma-ray detector with high-energy resolution.
See page 103 in The Craft of Editing or page 264 in The Craft of Scientific Writing.
In formal writing, what is on the left side of the colon should stand alone as a separate sentence.
Once the list ends, the sentence ends.

14. Although equations are separated by white space, they should be treated as part of the sentence
To calculate the strain, , we used equation 1:
where  is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the modulus of elasticity of aluminum.  =  E
(1) ,
See page 108 in The Craft of Editing or pages in The Craft of Scientific Writing.

15. Em-dashes act as parentheses to separate items that commas cannot
Because two isotopes of hydrogen—deuterium and tritium—are lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent—a high percentage, but not as high as originally expected.
Because two isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) are lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent (a high percentage, but not as high as originally expected).
See page 106 in The Craft of Editing or pages in The Craft of Scientific Writing.

16. Commas separate introductory phrases and clauses
After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.
After cooling, the exhaust gases continue to expand.
See page 103 in The Craft of Editing or page 263 in The Craft of Scientific Writing.

17. Commas separate parenthetical details
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive require the operator’s attention.
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive, require the operator’s attention.
See page 103 in The Craft of Editing.

18. Commas separate items in a list
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through spills when loading vehicles, spills and over-spills when filling the tanks, leaks from supply pipes and corroded welds, rust holes and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred through the following: spills when loading vehicles; spills and over-spills when filling the tanks; leaks from supply pipes; and corroded welds, rust holes, and cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.
See page 104 in The Craft of Editing or page 263 in The Craft of Scientific Writing. Note that the rules for punctuation a list are different for Europe. In Europe, unless an ambiguity exists, lists are punctuated A, B and C. In scientific and engineering documents in the United States, you are likely to see A, B, and C. The reasoning is that it is easier for the reader if the author is consistent on the punctuation because generally in a scientific or engineering document there will be at least one list in which an ambiguity would exist without the additional comma. Note that newspapers and literature in the United States do not follow this convention.

19. Avoiding Common Errors of Usage
Choose the right word, not its second cousin. The difference between the right word and the almost right word is the difference between “lightning” and “lightning-bug.”
Mark Twain
word
word
word
right word
Opening slide for discussion of usage. Many teachers and students consider discussion of these topics as trivial, but it is interesting how some of these rules change over the years and how some of these rules depend upon location. These changes cause all sorts of disputes, especially in engineering and science because many engineers and scientists look for rules without exceptions. English is a language of exceptions. Also interesting to note is that students often complain about grammar, but English has few grammatical rules compared with other languages such as German. Strictly speaking, grammar refers to the order of words to produce meaningful sentences. What’s probably most difficult about English is usage because English is such a hodgepodge of other languages. (Craft of Scientific Writing, Appendix B; Craft of Editing, Chapter 3, Appendix)
word
word
word
word

20. Not all usage rules are constant with respect to time
1700s: “an historical...”
1900s: “a historical...”
1900: X rays
1950: X-rays
1995: x-rays
See pages in The Craft of Editing.
C & E News (1985): the 1980’s (plural)
C & E News (1995): the 1980s (plural)

21. Not all usage rules are constant with respect to position
William Strunk and E. B. White,The Elements of Style:
Data: A plural, like phenomena and strata.
Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage:
In its current use, data occurs in two constructions: as a plural noun (like earnings) taking a plural verb…and as an abstract mass noun (like information) taking a singular verb…
See pages in The Craft of Editing.

22. Not all usage errors bother readers in the same way
affect/effect
its/it’s
verb disagreement
verb tense
comprise/compose
possessive
different from/than
compare with/to
Errors that
disturb
Errors that
distract
Not all mechanical errors are created equal. (The Craft of Editing, Chapter 3)
Errors that few even notice

23. Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.
are
has
person’s
This slide shows two types of common usage errors: possessive errors and subject-verb disagreements (sometimes catalogued under grammatical errors). In showing this slide, I cover up the revisions and the X’s, and ask the students to identify where in the following sentences there are subject-verb disagreements or possessive errors. Discussions of these errors can be found on pages and
Note that non-native speakers of English have particular problems with subject-verb disagreements and should seek advice from an English as a Second Language (ESL) text. Also note that these students have different problems depending on what their native language is. An interactive web exercise on subject-verb disagreements (Grammar #2) can be found at the “Writing Exercises” link on the “Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students” (
Americans of German or Scandinavian descent often have problems with possessives. An interactive web exercise on possessives occurs at the same web address as given above.
boss’s

24. To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:
Events that have already occurred
Present Tense:
Timeless details or details at time of reading
Future Tense:
Events that will occur after project
t = 0 t
See page 139 in The Craft of Editing or page 261 in The Craft of Scientific Writing. Although the “VT” in the flag stands for Virginia Tech, which is my university, you can tell your students that it represents “verb tense.”
The pressure was...
For the experiment, we assumed…
As was shown back in Figure 1...
Air is 79 percent nitrogen.
Figure 1 shows…
The computer code in Appendix B includes...
Future work will focus on.... 2

25. The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the document depend upon position
Introduction
This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.
Results and Discussion
...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller.
Conclusions
This report has presented a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, the circuit...
See page 139 in The Craft of Editing or page 261 in The Craft of Scientific Writing. 2

26. Use numerals when referring to measurements
When to use numerals
Specific measurements 3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s
Percentages 15 percent
Monetary figures $3000
Large numerals 5 million
When to write out numbers
Counting (one or two words) twenty-three gages
Informal measurements two hours
First word of sentence Thirty-three...
See page 121 in The Craft of Editing or page 140 in The Craft of Scientific Writing.

27. Certain words are commonly misused
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
A company’s success depends on (its / it's) employees.
The new material is (composed / comprised) of plastic and iodine.
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will choose the third option.
number
fewer
its
composed
This slide shows common usage errors that occur in engineering and science. In showing this slide, I cover up the answers on the right, and ask the students to identify which word is correct in each of the sentences. Discussions of these errors can be found in Appendix B.
Moreover, an interactive web exercise on usage can be found at the “Writing Exercises” link on the “Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students” (
as if

28. Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
principal on
principle
Regrettably
This slide shows more common usage errors that occur in engineering and science. In showing this slide, I cover up the answers on the right, and ask the students to identify which word is correct in each of the sentences. Discussions of these errors can be found in Appendix B.
Moreover, an interactive web exercise on usage can be found at the “Writing Exercises” link on the “Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Students” (
further
effects

29. Non-words and nonsensical groupings of words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with me.
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the work will stop because of the strike.
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique / unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
all right
Regardless
unique
This slide shows more misuses of language that occur in engineering and science. In showing this slide, I cover up the answers on the right, and ask the students to identify which word is correct in each of the sentences. Discussions of these errors can be found in Appendix B. Note that all right and a lot are too informal for many writing situations in engineering and science.
a lot