1. Describing participants
Method Section
Describing participants

2. Steps in this tutorial 1) State the goals of this tutorial
2) What is a method section
3) What is in a method section
4) What is the participants part of a method section
5) What goes in the participants section
6) The specific elements of a participants section
7) Detailed example of a participants section

3. Goals of this tutorial Explain the purpose of a method section
Demonstrate an example of the participants section of the method section

4. Objectives By the end of this tutorial you should be able to
Articulate what the method section of a psychology paper is
State what goes in that section
State the components of a participants section
Draft a participants section for your own work

5. What is a Method Section?
It is the part of the proposal or research paper that describes the methods used to collect the data
It follows the introduction and the literature review
It allows the reader to understand how data were collected, and to judge for herself if she thinks the methods were good
It should be detailed enough for a good researcher to be able to replicate a study from reading a method section

6. What is the Method section?
The method section contains several sections
Participants
Who was in the study
Procedure
What happened in the study
Measures/Materials
What measures were used—like surveys
Or what materials—like special lab equipment
Analysis section
Describes statistical analysis

7. 1- PARTICIPANTS

8. Participants Who was in the study? How many participants?
Or if it is a proposal, who will be in the study?
How many participants?
What type of sample?
E.g. convenience, stratified random?
Any important characteristics?
Both men and women?
Race/Ethnicity?
Age group?

9. Participants-How Many
A proposal should say exactly how many participants are intended
Not “about” how many
A completed study should say exactly how many were in the study when all data were collected
This may actually end up including several different numbers if there are missing data

10. Participants-Type of Sample
Typical samples include
Convenience sample
Convenience sampling (also known as grab sampling, accidental sampling, or opportunity sampling) is a type of non-probability sampling that involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing
Simple random sample
In statistics, a simple random sample is a subset of individuals (a sample) chosen from a larger set (a population). Each individual is chosen randomly and entirely by chance, such that each individual has the same probability of being chosen at any stage during the sampling process, and each subset of k individuals has the same probability of being chosen for the sample as any other subset of k individuals. This process and technique is known as simple random sampling, and should not be confused with systematic random sampling. A simple random sample is an unbiased surveying technique.
Stratified random sample
In statistical surveys, when subpopulations within an overall population vary, it could be advantageous to sample each subpopulation (stratum) independently. Stratification is the process of dividing members of the population into homogeneous subgroups before sampling. The strata should be mutually exclusive: every element in the population must be assigned to only one stratum. The strata should also be collectively exhaustive: no population element can be excluded. Then simple random sampling or systematic sampling is applied within each stratum. The objective is to improve the precision of the sample by reducing sampling error. It can produce a weighted mean that has less variability than the arithmetic mean of a simple random sample of the population.

11. Participants-Important Characteristics
The demographics of your sample
This includes
Age—should include age range
Race/ethnicity—should include numbers and/or percents
Gender—should include numbers and/or percents

12. Participants-Inclusion characteristics
Many studies require participants to have certain qualities, for example
Must have a diagnosis
Must be married
Must be of a certain income range
Studies must clearly state if participants had to have any particular characteristics or meet certain requirements

13. Participants-Exclusion characteristics
Many studies exclude participants with certain qualities, for example
Must have one diagnosis, but must not have another diagnosis
Must be depressed but not schizophrenic
Must not have a serious alcohol or drug problem
Must not be taking psychiatric medication
Studies need to state clearly any exclusion characteristics or things that would mean that someone should not be in the study

14. Participants Section-Example
Here is a participants section for a proposal
Note that it is written in the future tense
Participants will be a convenience sample of 30 couples who have been married or cohabiting at least 10 years, and are at least 30 years of age and under age 55. Both members of the couple must be employed full time outside the home. Couples may be of any race or ethnicity.

15. Participants section-Example
Here is a participants description from a completed study
Note that because it is a completed study it is written in the past tense
Participants were 42 adults who met criteria for a diagnosis of major depressive disorder. This convenience sample was 100% Hispanic American, and included 18 men and 26 women. Participants with current alcohol or drug problems or a history of psychosis were excluded.

16. 2- Procedure

17. Procedure Tells the reader how the data were collected
Clearly shows the order in which things occurred
States how the sample was recruited
Notes who collected the data
States clearly all processes or activities participants engaged in
Says what happened in the study
Notes where all the activities took place
May include other important details

18. How the sample was recruited
The participants section described what type of sample was used
E.g. a convenience sample or simple random sample
The procedures section describes how the sample was recruited or contacted

19. How the sample was recruited
How were they identified?
Where were they recruited?
What method, exactly, was used to recruit them?
For example, with fliers in local grocery stores asking interested volunteers to make contact by phone or ?
Using random digit dialing from a list of phone numbers from an entire zip code?

20. How the sample was recruited-example
Convenience sample:
The sample was recruited by posting fliers in five community centers that housed after-school programs for elementary school children. Fliers asked single parents of school aged children interested in a study of learning to contact the researcher if they wanted their children to participate in a brief study of learning styles.

21. How the sample was recruited
The exact number of community centers was noted
The fact that the community centers served a specific population was described
Who the flier was targeted and described
Single parents of school aged children
The wording of the flier was described

22. How the sample was recruited-Example 2
For a stratified random sample drawn from a university student population
All currently enrolled students were identified, and women and men were divided into separate groupings. Women were assigned a number from 1 to 5,390 and men assigned a number from 1 to 6040 (there were 5,390 and 6040 women and men on the rolls respectively). Research assistants drew numbers with a computerized random digit program, and contacted women and men and asked them if they would be willing to join the study, until by sampling with replacement, 400 women and 400 men had agreed to be in the study.

23. How the sample was recruited-Example 2-Notes
This is for a stratified random sample
The strata male and female are described
The method of random sampling using a computerized random digit generator is described
Who contacts them (a research assistant) is noted
How contact is made (by phone) is noted

24. Who collected the data Things to consider:
Did others collect data, such as teachers, or parents?
Did others collect data, like research assistants?
Did people who collected data have special training or education?
Did they have notable characteristics that is, was it important that a person who collected the data was male or female or of a certain age, race or ethnicity?

25. Who collected data-Examples
Here is an example:
Licensed clinical social workers conducted all interviews. Social workers and participants were matched by gender, race, and ethnicity, such that Hispanic American men were interviewed by Hispanic American men, African American women were interviewed by African American women, and so on. Trained research assistants collected follow up survey data by phone.

26. Who collected data-Example-2
Here is an example:
Undergraduate research assistants collected all survey data in pairs of two research assistants each time.

27. Who collected data-Notes on the examples
Note that in example one, two types of people collected data social workers and research assistants.
Note that in example one, the gender, race, and ethnicity characteristics of the social workers is mentioned, but not the research assistants.
Note also that this is not mentioned at all in example two.
This is because in one case the researcher believes it is important, and in the other cases the researcher did not believe it was important.

28. Where did activities take place
Was data collected at a school?
Did interviews happen at home, or at a place of the participants choosing?
Was the place where data was collected private—so that a participant could feel secure in discussing confidential information?
Was data collected in a lab, at a university or other institution?

29. Where did activities take place-Example
Here are two examples
Interviews took place at participants’ homes, or if they preferred, at an alternate location of their choice, such as a coffee shop or public library. Data were collected at schools, daycare centers and afterschool programs in a metropolitan area.

30. What processes or activities participants engaged in
How was consent obtained?
Were participants interviewed or surveyed?
Individually or in groups? In person or by phone?
Were materials read aloud, or did participants read to themselves?
Did they take a test or view a film or slides?
Were data collected from participants more than one time?
How long did activities take?

31. Processes and activities-Example
For a group experiment, this example also includes who and where information.
Data were collected from four groups of participants separately, one time for each group. Participants were seated in a college classroom. Prior to the start of the procedure they received the informed consent document, had an opportunity to read it and ask questions, and submitted their signed consent to a research assistant.
Participants were first surveyed about their basic demographics, stressful life experiences, and recent anxious symptoms. Then they were shown 4 films each. Experimental condition participants were shown four segments of “scary” films, and control participants were shown four segments of “neutral” films. These activities altogether took approximately 1 hour.

32. Other important details
Were data video or audio recorded?
Did data collection happen at a certain time of day or year?
Did participants receive an incentive?
Money
Course credits

33. Procedures section-Challenges?
The most challenging task in a procedure section is to get the right level of detail
Enough so that the reader has a clear sense of exactly what happened and how it happened
But not so much that it is boring or overwhelming
Procedures sections in published articles are likely to vary regarding level of detail

34. 3- Measures

35. What are Measures? Measures are the source of the actual data
These can be
Interviews
Surveys
Measurements of physical characteristics
Height
weight

36. Why describe measures?
Describing the measures helps the reader judge whether or not the results are valid
The measures section may be a lengthy and detailed section

37. Measures Measures include the following elements:
The construct or variable being measured
The name of the measure
A citation for the measure if it is published
How many items there are
A sample item
How items are scored
What higher and lower scores mean
Research or data supporting the reliability of the measure
Research supporting the validity of the measure

38. A construct or variable being measured
A construct is an idea or concept
A construct might be depression, aggression, abuse, agitation
There can be more than one measure for a single construct
There can be several constructs in one study
A variable is simply something that is measured
Like height, weight or income
Many studies measure constructs and variables

39. Name of the Measure/Citation
Constructs such as anxiety, risk behaviors, attitudes about marriage, etc., are likely (hopefully) using an existing measure.
Existing measures have formal names and usually abbreviations
If it is a published measure it should be cited

40. Construct/Measure name/Citation-Example
Two measures of child behavior problems
Child Behavior Problems
Parent reported child behavior problems were measured with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1991)…
Parent reported child behavior problems were also measured with the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI; Eyberg & Pincus, 1999)…

41. Notes on the Example Child behavior problems is the construct
The first measure is the Child Behavior Checklist, abbreviated CBCL
The authors are cited using proper citation style
The second measure is the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, abbreviated ECBI.

42. A sample item
It is very helpful for the reader to include an actual question or item from the measure that is described
This helps the reader see how items are worded
How long items may be
How complicated wording may be
What types of issues are asked about

43. How Items are Scored Items may be scored in different ways, such as
True/false
Never, rarely, sometimes, often, always
Word scoring is often assigned a number
This should be described so the reader can understand the choices participants had for answering questions
This helps the reader judge if the measure was adequate

44. Number of items/Sample item/Scoring-Example
Here is an example
The CBCL is a 113 item checklist of behavior problems. Parents are asked how often each behavior occurs compared to their experience of other similar age children currently or within the past 6 months. Items are scored on a scale of (0)= not true, (1)=sometimes true, and (2)= often true. Sample items include “bites fingernails” and “argues a lot.”

45. What high and low scores mean
Reader don’t automatically know what high and low scores mean
For instance, that a higher score on a depression scale means more depressive symptoms
Scales are not always scored in obvious ways
Readers need to know exactly what the range of possible scores is, and what higher or lower scores represent

46. Range and High and Low Scores-Example
For a measure of psychopathy
The PCL-R has 20 items and possible scores range from 0 to 40, where higher scores indicate more psychopathic behaviors and attitudes.

47. Reliability and Validity of a Measure
There must be evidence that a measure is reliable and valid
Usually this will come from the published literature

48. Reliability of a Measure
Descriptions should state support for the reliability of the measure
Different types of reliability may be important for a measure
Test-retest reliability and internal consistency reliability for survey measures
Interrater reliability for observational measures

49. Reliability of the Measure-Example
For a survey measure
The Beck Anxiety Inventory has been shown to have one- week test-retest reliability of .75 (Beck, Epstein, Brown & Steer, 1988). Internal consistency reliability in the current sample was .80.

50. Validity of the Measure
There are many many types of validity
Measure do not have to be shown to be valid in all ways
But some evidence of validity is usually necessary

51. Validity of the Measure-Example
For a survey measure
The Beck Anxiety Inventory has been shown to be able to discriminate anxious from non-anxious patients, and is also correlated with other measures of anxiety (Beck, Epstein, Brown & Steer, 1988).

52. Measures-Summary
Measures needs to be clearly described so the reader can understand what how the constructs and variables of interest were measured, and judge if the measures were good
There are several components to describing a measure
Describing a measure usually requires citations from the published literature