1. Motivating for Performance
Chapter 13
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Motivating for Performance
Motivation
Forces that energize, direct, and sustain a person’s efforts.
Managers must motivate people to:
join the organization,
remain in the organization
come to work regularly

3. Setting Goals Goal setting theory Goals that motivate should be
people have conscious goals that energize them and direct their thoughts and behaviors toward one end
Goals that motivate should be
acceptable to employees
challenging but attainable
specific, quantifiable, and measurable
feedback should be provided
Limitations of goal setting
individualized goals create can reduce cooperation
single productivity goals interfere with other dimensions of performance

4. Reinforcing Performance
Law of effect
behavior that is followed by positive consequences will be repeated
Reinforcers
positive consequences that motivate behavior
Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)
application of reinforcement theory in organizational settings
influences people’s behavior through the control of consequences of people’s actions

5. Reinforcing Performance (cont.)
Consequences of behavior
positive reinforcement - applying valued consequences that increase the likelihood that a person will repeat the behavior that led to it
negative reinforcement - removing or withholding an undesirable consequence
can involve the threat of punishment
punishment - administering an aversive consequence or withdrawing a reinforcer
extinction - withdrawing or failing to provide a reinforcing consequence

6. Reinforcement and Punishment
Immediately After Behavior
Present Withdraw
Positive Positive Punishment
Reinforcer Reinforcement
Negative Punishment Negative
Reinforcer Reinforcement

7. The Consequences of Behavior
Figure 13.1

8. Performance-Related Beliefs
Expectancy model
proposes that people behave based on the perception that their effort will lead to valued outcomes
expectancy - employees’ perception of the likelihood that their efforts will enable them to attain their performance goals
instrumentality - perceived likelihood that performance will be followed by a particular outcome
valence - value an outcome holds for the person contemplating it
for motivation to be high, expectancy, instrumentalities, and total valence of all outcomes must all be high

9. Expectancy Model Effort  Performance  Outcomes
Expectancy = Effort  Performance
Training, abilities, role perceptions have an effect on expectancy
Instrumentality=PerformanceOutcomes
If I perform the intended behavior, what will be the outcomes
Valence = Importance of Outcomes

10. Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory
Increase expectancies
Identify positively valent outcomes
Make performance instrumental toward positive outcomes

11. Understanding People’s Needs
Content theories
indicate the kinds of needs that people want to satisfy
the extent to which a person’s needs are met or not met affect her/his behavior on the job
Maslow’s need hierarchy
human needs are organized into five major types
physiological - food, water, sex, and shelter
safety or security - protection against threat and deprivation
social - friendship, affection, belonging, and love
Ego/esteem - independence, achievement, freedom, recognition, and self-esteem
self-actualization - realizing one’s potential

12. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
14.8
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-
Actualization
Esteem/Ego
Affiliation/
Social
Security/Safety
Physiological
Adapted from Figure 14.4 4

13. ERG Model of Motivation
14.9
ERG Model of Motivation
Frustration-Regression
Satisfaction-Progression
Growth Needs
Relatedness Needs
Existence Needs
Adapted from Figure 14.5 5

14. McClelland’s Needs Theory
Need for
Achievement
(nAch)
McClelland’s
Needs
Theory
Need for
Power
(nPow) s
Need for
Affiliation
(nAff)
McGraw-Hill
© 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

15. McClelland’s Needs Need for achievement Need for affiliation
characterized by a strong orientation toward accomplishment and an obsession with success and goal attainment.
Need for affiliation
reflects a strong desire to be liked by other people
Need for power
a desire to influence or control other people

16. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene factors
Characteristics of the workplace, such as company policies, working conditions, pay, and supervision, that can make people dissatisfied.
Motivators
Factors that make a job more motivating, such as additional job responsibilities, opportunities for personal growth and recognition, and feelings of achievement

17. Designing Motivating Jobs
Job rotation
changing from one routine task to another to alleviate boredom
can benefit everyone when done properly
Job enlargement
giving people additional tasks at the same time to alleviate boredom
additional tasks at the same level of responsibility
Job enrichment
changing a task to make it inherently more rewarding, motivating, and satisfying
adds higher levels of responsibility

18. Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
The Hackman and Oldham model of job design
three critical psychological states
meaningfulness - believe that work is important
responsibility - feel personally responsible for the work
knowledge of results - know how well the job was performed
psychological states produced by five core job dimensions
skill variety - different job activities involving several skills
task identity - completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work
task significance - important impact on the lives of others
autonomy - independence and discretion in making decisions
feedback - information about job performance

19. Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
The Hackman and Oldham model of job design (cont.)
effective job enrichment increases all five core dimensions
effectiveness of a job enrichment program depends on a person’s growth need strength
growth need strength - degree to which individuals want personal and psychological development

20. Hackman & Oldham Job-Enrichment Model
14.6
Hackman & Oldham Job-Enrichment Model
Five Job Characteristics
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Three Critical Psychological States
Growth Need Strength
Experienced meaningfulness
of work
Experienced responsibility for work outcomes
Knowledge of
actual work
results
Personal and Work Outcomes
High internal
work
motivation
High quality
work
performance
High
satisfaction
with the work
Low absenteeism
and turnover
Adapted from Figure 14.3

21. Achieving Fairness Equity theory
A theory stating that people assess how fairly they have been treated according to two key factors: outcomes and inputs.

22. Equity Theory Outcomes Inputs
refer to the various things the person receives on the job: recognition, pay, benefits, satisfaction, security, job assignments, and punishments
Inputs
refer to the contributions the person makes to the organization: effort, time, talent, performance, extra commitment, and good citizenship

23. Reactions to Inequity –under-reward situations
Reduce inputs – less effort, absenteeism, play computer games
Increase outcomes – ask for raise, theft, absenteeism
Decrease outcomes for others
Modify comparison
Leave – find a more equitable job
Distort reality

24. Equity Sensitivity
The questions below ask what you’d like for your relationship to be with any organization for which you might work. On each question, divide 10 points between the two choices (choice A and choice B) by giving the most points to the choice that is most like you and the fewest points to the choice that is least like you. You can, if you’d like, give the same number of points to both choices (for example, 5 points to choice A and 5 points to choice B). And you can use zeros if you like.
Just be sure to allocate all 10 points per question between each pair of possible responses. 

25. In any organization I might work for:
 1. It would be more important for me to:
__________ A. Get from the organization
__________ B. Give to the organization
2. It would be more important for me to:
__________ A. Help others
__________ B. Watch out for my own good
3. I would be more concerned about what I:
__________ A. received from the organization
__________ B. contributed to the organization

26. In any organization I might work for:
4. The hard work I would do should:
__________ A. Benefit the organization
__________ B. Benefit me
5. My personal philosophy in dealing with the organization would be:
__________ A. If I don’t look out for myself, nobody
else will
__________ B. It’s better for me to give than to receive

27. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Equity Sensitive
I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other 21

28. EQUITY SENSITIVITY Equity Sensitives
outcomes/inputs (self) = outcomes/inputs (other)
Consistent with original concept of equity
Dissatisfied with under-reward and over-reward

29. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other
Benevolent 22

30. BENEVOLENTS Prefer higher ratio of inputs to outcomes
Place more emphasis on intrinsic outcomes
Prefer meaningful work, challenge, achievement
Willing to produce more at a lower salary

31. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Entitled
I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other 23

32. ENTITLEDS Prefer higher outcome to input ratio than others
Place more importance on extrinsic outcomes
Emphasize pay, fringe benefits, security
More sensitive to underpayment

33. Psychological Contracts
A set of perceptions of what employees owe their employers, and what their employers owe them
has important implications for employee satisfaction/motivation
Benefits provided by
the organization
Benefits promised by
Contributions provided
by the employee
Contributions promised
versus