1. Short test - sociologists
1. Who suggested that parents who use language that challenges their children improve their cognitive function?
Hubbs-Tait et al (2002)
2. What did Basil Bernstein suggest and in which year?
Restricted & elaborated code (1972)
3. Who found that working class parents placed less value on their education and therefore were less ambitious for their children?
Douglas (1964)
4. Who suggested middle class parents give their children an advantage in 4 ways (parenting style, educational behaviours, use of income and income and parental education)?
Leon Feinstein (2008)
5. Bernstein and Young (1967) found what about middle-class mothers?
More likely to buy educational toys and books.
6. What are the 4 key features that Barryman suggested act as a barrier to educational achievement for working-class children?
Fatalism, Collectivism, immediate gratification, present-time orientation.
7. Name as many of the sociologists (5 in total) who argued against class being an educational barrier.
Keddie, Troyna & Williams, Blackstone & Mortimore
8. Who refers to the ‘cost of free schooling’ placing a heavy burden on poor families?
David Bull (1980)
9. What did Marilyn Howard (2001) say about the diet ad health of poorer families?
Lower intake of energy, vitamins and minerals.
10. Who found that children from low income families were more likely to engage in ‘externalising behaviour’ which disrupts their schooling?
- Blanden & Machin (2007)

2. Learning Objectives To understand cultural capital theory.
To know how this applied to working-class and middle-class children.
To be able to answer an exam question on external factors of class and education.

3. Cultural Capital Theory
Pierre Bourdieu (1984)
Argues that both cultural and material factors contribute to the educational achievement and are not separated but interrelated.
He used the concept of ‘capital’ to explain why the middle class are more successful.
Wealth
Education capital – qualifications
Cultural capital
He argues middle class generally possess more of all 3 types of capital

4. Cultural Capital continued
Middle-class children
Knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the middle class.
He sees middle-class culture as a type of capital because, like wealth, it gives an advantage to those who possess it.
Like Bernstein, he argues that through socialisation, middle-class children acquire the ability to grasp, analyse and express abstract ideas. They are more likely to develop intellectual interest and an understanding of what the education system requires for success.
This gives middle-class children an advantage in school.
Abilities and interests are highly valued and rewarded with qualifications.
The education system is not neutral, but favours and transmits the dominant middle-class culture.
In contrast – working-class children find that school devalues their culture as ‘rough’ and inferior. Their lack of cultural capital leads to exam failure.

5. Educational and economic capital
Bourdieu argues educational, economic and cultural capital can be converted into one another.
Can you explain how you think this works and how they all link?
Dennis Leech & Erick Campos (2003) conducted a study in Conventry which showed that middle-class parents are also more likely to be able to afford a house in the catchment area of a school that is highly placed in exam league tables. This is known as ‘selection by mortgage’ because it drives up the cost of houses near to successful schools and excludes working-class families.
Makes notes on Alice Sullivan’s findings from 2001 on page 24 of the book

6. Social function of elimination Cultural reproduction
Social reproduction
Social function of elimination
Cultural reproduction
Schools
reproduce
social inequality
Success/failure is
legitimated by
social hierarchy
working class
exam failure
(due to lacking
dominant culture)
Self-elimination
choose to drop
out/see unfair
system
dominant class
The powerful
impose their
definition of reality
on others
Dominant culture =
cultural capital
(socialization)

7. Recent studies supporting Bourdieu
Ball, Bowe & Gewirtz
They explored the way that middle class parents
today have greater cultural capital and they:
- ‘play the system’
- have more ‘stamina’ to research schools/appeal etc
- have material advantages to support their child, ie,
transport to go to ‘better school’ further away.

8. Exam Question
ITEM B In general, middle-class pupils achieve better examination results then working-class pupils, many of whom are in receipt of free school meals. According to Feinstein, as early as 22 months, working-class children are already lagging behind middle-class children in their intellectual development. Many of these children have parents who also underachieved at school. Applying material from Item B, analyse two factors outside schools that contribute to working-class underachievement. (10 marks)
Examiners advice
Spend about 15 minutes on this question.
Divide your time fairly between the factors.
You don’t need a separate introduction.
Take 2 factors from the item and show through a chain of reasoning how each one contributes to working-class underachievement.
It is a good idea to quote from the item
You could use FSM, intellectual development or parents’ education.
Use concepts such as material deprivation, restricted code, cultural capital, cultural deprivation, working-class subculture, immediate gratification and debt aversion.
Include a brief evaluation.