1. Local communities and service distribution in an era of austerity Peter Matthews Annette Hastings Research funded by:

2. Contents Realist synthesis Local strategy of equality Four causal theories of middle class activism o Land-use planning o Neighbourhood services Questions for local leadership

3. Realist Synthesis Method from policy analysis Between RCTs/systematic review and more theoretical approaches Identifies families of mechanisms and the evidence base for them Aims to create a middle theory with predictive power 1980 – present day, UK, US, Scandinavia

4. M O C n n

5. Mechanism: middle class community activism Outcome: disproportionate benefit to middle classes C n

6. Local strategy of equality In principle, local people may choose to vote for high or low spending political parties, and so any given level of service should not be enforced by the centre. (Powell, Boyne & Ashworth, 2001: 21)

7. Local strategy of equality Equality to meet need Normative Felt Expressed Comparative Outcomes:

8. Local strategy of equality Rights: Each area is entitled to a level of spending proportionate to its contribution to national and local taxes Outcomes:

9. Local strategy of equality Effort: all areas should be able to provide the same standard of service by drawing upon the same proportion of their tax base Outcomes:

10. Local strategy of equality Equal level of service for individuals Equitable treatment for taxpayers Equal outcomes for individuals Local differences expressing local wishes Outcomes:

11. Mechanism: middle class community activism Outcome: disproportionate benefit to middle classes C n

12. Theory name Definition Ill stand as the parish council chair That the level or nature of middle class interest group formation allows for the collective articulation of their needs and demands, and that service providers respond to this. Ill write to my councillor and complain That the level and nature of middle-class engagement with public services on an individualised basis means that services are more likely to be provided according to their needs and demands. Ill just phone our doctor That the alignment in the cultural capital enjoyed by middle classes service users and service providers leads to engagement which is constructive and confers advantage. Ill vote for themThat the needs of middle class service users, or their expectations of service quality, are normalised in policy and practice or even that policy priorities can favour middle-class interests.

13. Localism Planning for housing development Neighbourhood services in deprived areas

14. Planning for housing development Open Source Planning Mechanism: middle class community activism is stopping development because residents do not get any material benefit from new development, only costs Outcome: Not enough homes being provided in areas where they are needed C n

15. Planning for housing development Open Source Planning Mechanism: materially benefit middle class homeowners and they will want homes to be built: New homes bonus; Community Infrastructure Levy. Outcome: lots of new homes in the south east of England C n

16. Open Source planning will engage local communities and foster a spirit of innovation and entrepreneurship. or a logic of using a rights-based equitable outcome to meet normative or expressed need and equality in provision

17. In order to keep riff-raff from [nearby city] out of the community you need this s106 Agreement [planning policy] Sturzaker, 2010: 1014

18. Causal theories 1.Middle classes much more likely to be members of parish councils 2.Middle classes more likely to comment on applications – self-sustaining cycle 3.Middle classes can call on social capital – retired planners etc. 4.Pre-1997 system generally favoured middle classes 4.Developers imagine a vocal middle class and pre- emptively respond to them Expressed need trumps normative need

19. Planning for housing development Mechanism: middle classes resist development as predicted by four causal theories Outcome: lower planned housing numbers Context: socio- economic inequality

20. Planning for housing development Mechanism: middle classes resist development as predicted by four causal theories Outcome: increased planned housing numbers Context: socio- economic inequality Mechanism: HMA-led regional planning targets

21. Planning for housing development Open Source Planning Mechanism: New homes bonus; Community Infrastructure Levy; Neighbourhood planning; Outcome: further reduction in planned housing numbers Context: socio- economic inequality four causal theories

22. Neighbourhood Services Mechanism: middle class community activism Outcome: inverse care law Context: socio- economic inequality

23. Neighbourhood Services - ABIs Mechanism: middle class community activism Outcomes: Unequal services More equal outcomes Context: socio- economic inequality Mechanism: ABIs Enhanced services Tailored services and projects Capital investment Community empowerment

24. Neighbourhood Management Mechanism: middle class community activism Outcomes: Unequal services More equal outcomes Context: socio- economic inequality Mechanism: neighbourhood management Enhanced services Realigned mainstream expenditure

25. Control Shift By giving people more power and control over the services that are delivered in their areas, we can inspire a new spirit of civic pride in our communities. Its simple psychology – when people know their actions can make a real difference they are far more motivated to get involved.

26. or providing opportunities for felt need to be expressed will enable services to meet this expressed need which will be normative need

27. Localism Outcome: Decentralisation will allow different communities to do different things in different ways to meet their different needs. This will certainly increase variety in service provision. But far from being random – as the word lottery implies – such variation will reflect the conscious choices made by local people. Context: No difference in capacity between communities Communities stifled by state Mechanism: empowering reforms allow felt need to be expressed

28. Localism in action Substantial, front-loaded reductions in grants that met comparative need Pressure on local government services in most deprived areas Community right-to-buy Community right-to-challenge

29. Neighbourhood Services Mechanism: middle class community activism four causal theories Outcome: inverse care law Rights or effort-based equity Context: socio- economic inequality Community right to challenge Community right to buy

30. Conclusion Effect of middle class activism is overwhelming Needs of middle classes are expressed and normalised Localism creates new channels by which mechanisms might be effective Very likely to exacerbate inequalities Localism must be funded Questions for local leadership