1. Psychology 235 Dr. Blakemore
Learning

2. Basic Types of Learning
Habituation
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning or Imitation

3. Operant Behaviors Behaviors that occur at some rate
Basic principle: operant behaviors are maintained, increased, or decreased (in rate) by their consequences

4. Behavior Modification
Behavior modifier
Behavior analyst

5. Operant Level
The rate of a behavior prior to any known conditioning or training
Also known at the baseline or base rate
The operant level must be measured first
so that one can see changes in the behavior

6. Positive Reinforcement
SR+
Reinforcement = strengthening
Positive = added
Any stimulus which is added after a behavior (which follows a behavior) and increases (or maintains) that behavior’s rate
whether something is reinforcing is determined by its effect on behavior

7. SR+ Some Examples
Praise
Money
Attention

8. Shaping
The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations to the desired response
some behaviors are very unlikely
you need to reinforce something that is close to what you want
then reinforce something else that is even closer, etc.

9. Operant Conditioning and Shaping on YouTube
Shaping a rat
A video about Skinner, with some shaping in it
And a video about rewards and punishments with children

10. Extinction Discontinuing reinforcement
At first the rate of the behavior increases
called an extinction burst
then there is a gradual slow decrease in rate
spontaneous recovery occurs
there are no side effects
it can be much faster if you reinforce an incompatible response at the same time

11. Negative Reinforcement
SR-
Reinforcement = strengthening
Negative = subtracted
Any stimulus which is subtracted after a behavior (which is removed following a behavior) and increases (or maintains) that behavior’s rate
whether something is reinforcing is determined by its effect on behavior

12. SR- Some Examples NOT PUNISHMENT!! Rat in Skinner Box
Escape and Avoidance
Dog and invisible fence
Child in classroom

13. Punishment
Any stimulus which follows a behavior and decreases that behavior’s rate
If the rate doesn’t decrease then it’s not punishment
Some things that parents and teachers use as punishers actually function as reinforcers

14. Punishment, Some Examples
Rat in Skinner Box
Child hitting younger brother

15. Factors that influence punishment’s effectiveness
Timing
the more immediate, the more effective
Intensity
the more intense, the more effective
Providing an explanation (especially other-oriented induction)
The relationship between the child and the punisher
Consistency

16. Side Effects of Punishment
Fear, anxiety, avoidance
The more you punish a child, the more the child comes to fear and avoid you or the situation where punishment occurs
It destroys the relationship between you
Hostility and Aggression
Punishment generates hostility and anger

17. Mild Punishers Time Out and Response Cost Can avoid the side effects
Become ineffective if overused

18. Time Out Time out from positive reinforcement
It should be as boring, but not frightening
If it is reinforcing, it’s not a time out (e.g., room with toys, seat in center or front of room are not good time outs)
It should be brief (e.g., one minute for every year of the child’s age)
State the rule and the consequences and then take the child to time out. Don’t have a long discussion.
Start the timer when the child is quiet -- let them see the timer
After it’s over, reward them as soon as they behave acceptably

19. Response Cost
The behavior has a cost -- an undesirable consequence (e.g., grounding, losing TV privileges)
Different costs work for different children
The consequence should be relatively mild
Or it may generate hostility
and you may not be willing to stick to it

20. Scheduling Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement
Occurs every time the behavior happens
Intermittent Reinforcement
Only happens some times
Affects three things
Learning new behaviors
The rate of performing well learned behaviors
Extinction

21. Effects on behaviors being reinforced
New learning takes place faster and more efficiently under continuous reinforcement
Well learned behaviors are performed at a higher rate when the reinforcement is intermittent

22. Effects on extinction
After continuous reinforcement, extinction is slow and steady
After intermittent reinforcement, extinction takes much longer (much slower), and it much more difficult to establish
Any reinforcement during the process makes it much more difficult to extinguish the behavior

23. What’s the solution?
Extinguish unwanted behavior while at the same time reinforcing wanted, but incompatible behavior
As well as trying not to get into the situation in the first place.