1. Dealing with offender behaviour

2. Do you think custodial sentencing is effective?
Use what we have discussed today and your packs to form an argument to both sides of the debate

4. Disadvantages
Over 65% of offenders re offended within 2 years of being released (lack of rehabilitation)
Can learn new tricks in prison
Budget cuts mean lots of prisoners don't get the rehab they need
Opportunities after prison are limited
Family breakdown
Prison costs the tax payer £40 a year each
A prison place costs £36,237 a year
Prison conditions are poor, suicide rates are high
Non violent offenders are put in there
Over crowding of prisons

5. Restorative justice programmes

6. What is restorative justice?
Restorative justice programmes switch the emphasis from the need of the state (to enforce the law) to the needs of the victim (to come to terms with the crime and move on).
Restorative Justice: a system of dealing with criminal behaviour which focusses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation within victims.
Offenders see the impact of their crime and the process empowers victims by giving them a “voice.

7. Rehabilitation of offenders so they do not re-offend.
Service within the community to reflect the nature of the crime
Rehabilitation of offenders so they do not re-offend.
An opportunity to explain the impact of the crime (impact statements)
An acknowledgement of the harm caused
Acceptance of responsibility
Active rather than passive
Atonement for wrongdoing
A chance to ask questions (voice to the victim)
Reduce sense of victimization
Showing the offenders feelings of guilt (psychological)
Offender may give financial restitution to the victim for the damage caused
Work in schools, workplaces and hospitals to help manage conflict between people.
A face to face encounter with statements from both sides

8. Activity: create a stage by stage highlighting RJM

9. Success from the victim’s perspective
Success from the victim’s perspective. UK Restorative Justice council (2015) report 85% satisfaction from face to face meetings with their offender.
Success in terms of reduced offending UK Restorative Justice council (2015) report 14% overall reduction in re-offending rates
Advantages over custodial sentencing: offenders can avoid the deviant sub culture of custodial sentencing. Reduced reoffending means that £8 is saved for every £1 spent on the restorative process (sometimes funder by the fines payed by the prisoners
Not applicable to all offenders and victims
Ethical Issues
Evaluation

10. Exam focus
Explain one strength and one weakness of restorative justice programmes (6 marks)

11. Behaviour modification
Behaviour modification: An application of the behaviourist approach to treatment (such as the management of offenders in penal institutions).
It is based on the principles of operant conditioning.
The general aim is to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones through the selective use of positive and/or negative reinforcement

12. Behaviour modification
These programmes are a way of increasing desired behaviour through the use of reward within an institution e.g. increasing desired behaviour of offenders within a prison.
Desired
behaviour

13. How many of these key terms could you describe / outline?
Behaviour shaping
Primary reinforcer
Secondary reinforcer
Selective reinforcement
Students to try and write a definition of each

14. How many of these key terms could you describe / outline?
Behaviour shaping: Desired behaviour is broken down into small steps called increments and behaviours selectively reinforced.
Primary reinforcer: Desirable material items, activities or services e.g. food, phone call home
Secondary reinforcer: The tokens received for achieving target behaviours. The value of the tokens is derived from an association with a primary reinforcer.
Selective reinforcement: rewarding of specific behaviours that are identified at the outset; not responding to behaviours that are undesirable and needing to be extinguished.
Green pen definitions.

15. Miltenberger (2008) 7 components to Behaviour Modification:
Target behaviours are identified.
Types of tokens are decided
Primary reinforcers are identified
Reinforcement schedule is decided
Exchange criterion i.e. price
Time/place for exchange is decided
Penalty or fine for engaging in undesirable behaviours (although not always used)
Annotate notes with the 7 components … where are they referred to?
Give students the scenario and stick in centre of A4 sheet. Annotate with a behaviour modification design using 7 components above.

16. Based on operant conditioning.
Focuses on the role of positive reinforcement and the use of secondary reinforcers (tokens).
The secondary reinforcers (tokens) can be exchanged for primary reinforcers which are desirable items such as food, TV or cigarettes.
A token is given when an offender acts in a desirable manner. This could include obeying orders or keeping the cell clean and tidy.
The target behaviours must be clearly defined so the prisoner is aware of what behaviours will bring tokens and how many tokens they are worth.
Punishment may also be introduced if the behaviours are not met. This can be the removal of the tokens.
Primary reinforcer – food, TV, phone call, time in exercise area.
Secondary reinforcer – The tokens (they need to be associated with the primary reinforcer)

17. Measuring and monitoring of behaviour modification
After a target behaviour has been identified a baseline level is established over a few days of observation.
Once the reinforcement schedule commences the offender’s progress is carefully monitored by prison staff.
The target behaviour is compared with the baseline at regular intervals to check for progress and effectiveness.

18. Activity: create a stage by stage highlighting BM

19. Evaluation
Why might behaviour modification be a cost effective treatment for offenders?
Why might the effects of BM not last long once the offender leaves prison?
Why might the programme be considered unethical?
In what way is the offender passive when taking part in BM? How might this impact on recidivism?
In what ways can we individually tailor a BM programme? Why might this be a challenge?
Using a different coloured pen use the questions as a guide to evaluating behaviour modification

20. Hobbs and Holt (1976)
Across 3 behavioural units, a token economy system was introduced, a 4th institution for young offenders acted as a control condition. The token economy groups showed a significant difference in the amount of positive behaviour. The same was also found in adult institutions (Allyon, 1979) This might prove to be a socially sensitive topic because . . .

21. Benefits of the token economy system were lost when staff applied the rules inconsistently due to lack of training or high staff turnover. Offenders are not given the option over whether they participate in the token economy. Withdrawal of privileges such as exercise or phonecalls to loved ones may also be ethically questionable. What are two ethical issues within the token economy system?

22. Blackburn (1993)
Token economies, according to Blackburn, “have little rehabilitative value” – any positive changes may quickly be lost when offenders are released. Progress is unlikely to be assured upon release since law- abiding behaviour is not rewarded/reinforced on the outside. Rewards the offender receives from breaking the law (such as group status) may be more powerful than abiding by the token economy. What is a real-world application of this research?

23. Field (2004)
The rewards and frequency of these rewards must be tailored to the individual offender. Field found that in a youth offender setting, prisoners responded more positively when rewards were more immediate and more frequent. Why might individually tailored programmes be more difficult to implement in a typical prison.

24. Anger management programmes

25. Ramyond Novaco (1975)
Anger Management: a therapeutic programme offered in prisons to identify triggers and allow offenders to deal with the situation in a positive and calm manner.
Cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts.
Becoming angry is reinforced by an individual’s feeling of control within that situation.
Anger management is a form of CBT – offenders recognise triggers and implement cognitive techniques that deal peacefully with the situation whilst avoiding anger.

26. Three steps: PAP (Novaco, 1975)
1. Cognitive Preparation
Offenders identify situations that provoke anger to they can recognise when an aggressive outburst might occur
Thought patterns are challenged, e.g., if someone becomes angry when laughed at, they will conclude (after training) that it is the behaviour being mocked, not them
Consider negative consequences of anger on others

27. Three steps: PAP (Novaco, 1975)
2. Skill acquisition
Offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with the triggers more effectively.
Cognitive skills: positive self-talk.
Behavioural: assertiveness training to help them communicate more effectively.
Physiological: methods of relaxation and/or meditation

28. Three steps: PAP (Novaco, 1975)
3. Application Practice
Offenders are given the opportunity to practice their skills within a monitored environment using role-play. The successful response would be met with positive reinforcement from the therapist.

29. Who is it used on? Used in prisons
Used on ex-offenders who are serving a probationary period
Conducted in small groups
Lasts around 10 sessions

30. Activity: create a mind map highlighting the 3 stages

31. Activity: stages of Anger Management: create an example under each!
Cognitive Preparation
Skill Acquisition
Application practice
The offender reflects on their past experience of anger and triggers. The therapist will aim to identify if the response is irrational and aim to break an irrational automatic response in future.
Offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with the triggers more effectively.
Cognitive skills: positive self-talk
Behavioural: assertiveness training to help them communicate more effectively
Physiological: methods of relaxation and/or meditation
Offenders are given the opportunity to practice their skills within a monitored environment using role-play. The successful response would be met with positive reinforcement from the therapist.
Example:

32. Evaluation: Keen (2000)
The National Anger Management Package was trailed in England and Wales with offenders aged There were initial issues of offenders not taking the course seriously and forgetting their routines, the programme was considered to be a success. Offenders reported high levels of self-control and increased awareness after the course. Do you think anger management is more or less time/cost effective than behaviour modification? Give a reason for your answer.

33. Evaluation Conflicting evidence relating to success rate
Taylor (2006) report 75% improvement rates
Howells et al (2005) cite five meta-analytical studies which showed moderate benefits of AMP
Methodological issues with research (dependant on length of course, who oversees AMP (psychologist or prison staff) and how anger is assessed (self-report/observations – subject to bias)
Limitations of CBT: Individuals motivation to change/high attrition rates
Short versus long term goals
The relationship between anger and aggression and crime: Much violence can take place without anger acting as a prominent antecedent. If anger does not contribute to aggression, then anger management may be irrelevant.

34. Anger management vs Token economy
Compare and contrast behaviour modification and anger management. If struggling ask students what features of the programmes might we compare and contrast using.

35. 1. Which of the following is not one of the phases of anger management?
Mental restructuring
Cognitive preparation
Skills acquisition
Application practice
2. Which would not be part of ‘skills acquisition’?
Learning positive self talk
Assertiveness training
Exercise on how to communicate more effectively
Exchanging tokens for rewards
3. Keen (2000)studied young offenders who had participated in the …
National Anger Management Package
Offender’s Anger Management Programme
British Anger Management Strategy
Anger Management Reduction Scheme
4. Which of the following approaches is not really part of anger management?
Behavioural
Cognitive
Psychodynamic
Social

36. Exam focus
Following a series of riots in cities all over England, a politician was interviewed on the radio. He said, ‘Rioters and looters should be sent to prison. We must send a clear message that this sort of behaviour is not acceptable. Society expects such behaviour to be severely punished.’
Briefly discuss two roles of custodial sentencing identified in the politician’s statement (4 marks)
Another politician also took part in the radio interview. She argued, ‘The people were rioting for a reason. They were angry with the police and lost control.’
Outline and briefly discuss one treatment programme for people who offend because they are angry (4 marks).

37. Briefly discuss two roles of custodial sentencing identified in the politician’s statement (4 marks)
Deterrence - seeing / experiencing the negative consequence means that the offending behaviour should be avoided in the future; prison as punishment; negative reinforcement; vicarious learning - seeing peers go to prison; punishment acts such that negative consequences will be avoided in future. Retribution – society exacting revenge for unacceptable conduct. Incapacitation – sending to prison removes the offender from society, putting the offender out of action.

38. Evaluate
Recidivism rates indicate prison does not deter (approximately 70% of young male offenders re-offend within two years);
Exacting retribution does not change the offender’s behaviour - alternatives to prison may be better than straightforward punishment, eg restorative justice
retribution often occurs as a result of the political imperative to appear to be tough on crime
incapacitation is only temporary in most cases; even people in prison can continue to commit crime so incapacitation is not complete.

39. Outline and briefly discuss one treatment programme for people who offend because they are angry (4 marks).
Novaco’s 3 stages
cognitive preparation (recognising own feelings of anger and what triggers anger)
skills acquisition (learning strategies to control own anger, eg deep breathing, repeating calming mantra, counting to 10, application
practising using newly learned strategies in safe situations, eg role play of anger provoking situation).

40. Evaluate
evidence for effectiveness in reducing anger, eg Ireland (2000)
long-term v short-term effectiveness
misplaced assumption that offending is caused by anger (Loza and Loza-Fanous (1999)
focus on cognition as opposed to changing behaviour; need for trained personnel.

41. Exam focus
Q1. Discuss the psychological effects of custodial sentencing. (Total 16 marks) Q2. Experts have different views about how to deal with recidivism. Some believe that custodial sentencing is the best way of reducing re-offending; others think that prison may not be the solution and that there are better alternatives. There is also much debate about whether treatment programmes reduce re-offending. Discuss ways of dealing with the problem of recidivism. Refer to the views outlined above in your answer. (Total 16 marks) Q3. Describe and evaluate anger management as a treatment for offending. Refer to evidence in your answer. (Total 16 marks)