1. Advanced Flight Operations II
AVIA 222
Advanced Flight Operations II

2. Radar Services RADAR = Radio Direction and Ranging Ref: AIM COM 3.14
Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR)
Uses radio signals to measure range and azimuth to a/c or weather and terrain etc.
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
Uses transponder signals to positively identify targets, information transfer (mode C or S), longer range but no weather/terrain information.
Precision Approach Radar
Short range, highly accurate radar (mostly military, some larger civilian airports)
Ref: AIM COM 3.14

3. The RDP system can be interfaced with any primary and secondary radars using a dedicated radar interface board to adapt the incoming radar data formats to a common internal protocol.

4. Radar Con’t.
ATC uses radar to increase airspace utilization by reducing the separation intervals between aircraft.
In addition radar services provide traffic information, navigation assistance, weather, aircraft data etc.
Radar Vectoring can allow lower sector altitudes as ATC provides minimum terrain clearance, as well as more direct operations i.e.. Vectoring to a glideslope instead of following a published arc.

5. IFR Separation At or below FL290, Above FL290,
1000’ of vertical separation is provided to IFR a/c
Above FL290,
2000’ of vertical separation is provided
Flight levels will not be approved if current altimeter settings could conflict a/c below FL180

6. IFR Lateral Separation
ATC provides airspace protection based on the approved track, holding procedure, and approach procedure taking into account the accuracy of the navigational equipment being used.
When off airways and beyond navigational signal coverage areas, 45nm on either side of the intended track is protected.
Ref. AIM RAC 6.4

7. Wake Turbulence Separation
Wake turbulence is most commonly encountered during take off or landing phases behind heavy aircraft.
Wake turbulence can also be encountered at any phase of flight when closely behind and below heavy aircraft, such as in the circuit at a busy airport, or during circling procedures.

9. A/C classification for wake turbulence is based on MCTOW:
Group 1 (heavy), a/c certified for take off at or above 300,000 lbs.
Group 2 (medium), a/c between 12,500 and 300,000
Group 3 (light), a/c under 12,500lbs.

11. Heavy behind a Heavy = 4 miles Medium behind a Heavy = 5 miles
WT Separation, Radar Departures and Vectoring behind with less than 1000’ vertical separation
Heavy behind a Heavy = 4 miles
Medium behind a Heavy = 5 miles
Light behind a Heavy = 6 miles
Light behind a Medium = 4 miles

12. Non-Radar Departures
ATC will apply a TWO minute hold for any aircraft following a Heavy take off if using the same runway departure point, or if within 2,500’ of a parallel runway
ATC will apply a THREE minute hold behind a heavy if departure is from a mid point of the runway, or a longer take off roll can be expected.

13. Life Rafts are required by…
Single engine a/c operating further than 100nm, or 30 min at cruise, from a suitable safe landing area.
Multi engine a/c operation further than 200nm, or 60 minutes, from a suitable safe landing area.

14. CMNPS
Canadian Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (Airspace):
CMNPS is a specified portion of Canadian Domestic Airspace in the Artic and Northern Control Area between FL
Certification depends on navigational performance and crew training that enables the a/c to
Deviate less than 6.3nm off the assigned track
Tolerances of less than 1 hour off track by more than 30 nm every 2000 flight hours
Tolerances of less than 1 hour off track by more than nm every 8000 flight hours
The CMNPS transition area allows non certified a/c to mix with certified a/c from FL280-FL330 (see handout).

15. CMNPS Canadian Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications Airspace
CMNPS is a specified portion of Canadian Domestic Airspace between FL
Most of CMNPS is within the Arctic Control Area (ACA) and the Northern Control Area (NCA), with a small portion in the Southern Control Area (SCA)

16. CMNPS Cont’d
CMNPS allows ATC to provide reduced separation for RNAV flights
RNAV (Area Navigation) is navigation along any path (off airways), direct to the destination, using radio navigation aids or self contained (internal) navigation systems.
Navaids include: VOR/DME, Loran-c, Omega, Omega/VLF
Internal (self contained) navigation systems (INS) use accelerometers, gyros (electronic, laser type) and computers to maintain a position fix with no external inputs.

17. Requirements for CMNPS
Certification depends on navigational performance and crew training that enables the a/c to
Deviate less than 6.3nm off the assigned track
Tolerances of less than 1 hour off track by more than 30 nm every 2000 flight hours
Tolerances of less than 1 hour off track by more than nm every 8000 flight hours

18. Transition Airspace
The CMNPS transition area allows non certified a/c to mix with certified a/c from FL280-FL330 (see handout).
A/c that are not CMNPS certified are restricted to below FL330 (unless the uncertified a/c has authorized ATC clearance as a result of no impedance of certified a/c).
A/c that are certified can transition through this airspace enroute to CMNPS airspace above FL330.

19. Aircraft Requirements
The minimum navigation equipment required for certifications is:
For transitioning between continents through CDA:
Two long range nav systems (Omega/VLF, INS, GNSS), or one long range with multiple sensors and one short range (ADF, VOR/DME)
Within North America:
If within radio reception range of navaids, one long and one short range system
If on Airways, on company approved (AOC) air routes:
Dual short range systems

20. Flight Planning
When filing IFR flight plans, the suffix “Y” indicates that the a/c is CMNPS approved.
The suffix “X” indicates NAT (?) MNPS approved, and is accepted by Canadian ATC as international certification.

21. GET LOST!
As part of the CMNPS crew training…flight crews must verify their position by instrument cross checks after entering CMNPS airspace.
Any discrepancies must be reported to ATC ASAP!
Remember Flightcrafts oops while ferrying a refitted a/c to New Zealand?

22. CMNPS Communications
Because of the range, radio communications on VHF or HF may not possible during some routes…radio communication must be re-established as soon as within the range of the nearest transmitting facility (200nm).

23. RNPC Required Navigation Performance Capability
RNPC certification is required for both the aircraft and crew to fly RNAV within CDA in RNPC designated airspace.

24. A/C Certification
The a/c must be certified and verified by the registering state that it can determine its position within +/- 4nm.
One area long range, and one short range set of navigational instruments is required.
Aircraft with CMNPS certification are deemed to have met the RNPC requirements.

25. Position Reporting
For aircraft that are certified RNAV, when ATC requests a DME position report, the distance reported shall be based on the RNAV instruments, not the VOR/DME (unless specifically requested).

26. S e p a r a t i o n
For both CMNPS and RNPC airspace…any navigation or communication failure should be reported ASAP because the area operates under reduced separation minima from ATC.

27. Three Types of Jet Engines

28. Turbo-jet
This is the most basic of jet engines. It is still used on many aircraft, such as the older Boeing series…the really loud ones!

29. Turbo-Fan
This is an evolution of the turbojet engine in which the core jet engine is surrounded by a large fan that accelerates air around the outside. The outer fan produces a substantial amount of thrust as well as greatly reducing exhaust noise…B series, or the Airbus 319 are our Kelowna examples. This is a cutaway of a GE90.

30. Turbo Prop
This is a jet turbine system that instead of using the exhaust air flow as thrust, a propeller is turned via the drive shaft and transmission, or by a viscous coupling.
Free turbine: the power turbine, which turns the propeller, is mechanically free from the compressor turbine.
This model shows a fixed shaft turbine which has a shaft/gearbox system that does not have a viscous coupling.

31. Turbine Engine Lingo
Axial Flow Compressor – most common type of engine design. Compressor stages can be added without increasing diameter of the engine. Older jets used a centrifugal type.
Compression Pressure Ratio (CPR) – the ratio between compressor discharge pressure and engine inlet pressure.

32. Centrifugal Compressor
The vanes at the far right are staged behind the axial flow compressor section. Advantage: Centrifugal sections create pressure much quicker (at lower rpm than axial flow).

33. Interstage Turbine Temperature (ITT) – An engine monitoring gauge that measures the exhaust turbine temperatures. This is the hottest part of the engine and requires close monitoring to keep within AFM operation range limits.
Temperature and Pressure – High air temperature and low pressure (high altitudes) reduce air density and thus reduce the performance of turbine engines.
Humidity and Moisture – Humidity and moisture (rain etc) have no measurable effect on the power production of a turbine.
Beta Range – The propeller position where the pitch and fuel flow are both controlled by the power lever for the purpose of taxing or reverse. Low pitch stops prevent operation of Beta range during cruise

34. Rate of Climb
Pressurization rate required is dependent on the rate of climb of the aircraft. If an a/c climbs very quickly, the pressure supply system must be able to pressurize the cabin at a specific rate. This is calculated to stay within the comfort zone of 18 mbar per minute.

35. Calculation!!!
To determine the cabin rate of climb required you need to know:
Destination altitude minus start altitude
Planed Cruise flight level subtract airport elevation
Expected Rate of Climb
Feet per minute
Desired Cabin altitude
Cabin pressure altitude to be maintained

36. Example: Airport elevation: 2000 feet Planned Cruise: FL330
Rate of Climb: 1500’/min.
Desired Cabin Pressure: 8000’
31,000’ = minutes to altitude.
1500’/min
6000’ (cabin pressure change) = 290’ feet per min. change
20.66min.

37. Cold Temperatures
The speed of sound at sea level on a standard atmosphere day (+15C) is 660kts.
-40C = 594 kts
-60C = 575 kts

38. The speed of sound for any temperature can be calculated with the following formula:
S = 39 X Temp K
S = speed of sound in kts
K = temp in Kelvin (C + 273)
Example:
What is the speed of sound when the outside air temperature is 32 C?
S = 39 X 305
S = 39 X 17.46
S = 681 kts.

39. Note:
Most flight computers will also calculate for speed of sound by turning the Mach index to the outside temperature in the TAS window. The speed of sound for that temperature is read on the outer scale opposite the 10.

40. Mach #
The mach number is the ratio of TAS to the speed of sound at that temperature.
Review…TAS is Calibrated Airspeed corrected for Altitude and Temperature
CAS is corrected for instrument and position error, but at cruise speed and higher altitudes is basically the same as IAS
Mach # = TAS S

42. MAC
Mean Aerodynamic Chord: the average width of the wing from the Leading Edge to the Training Edge
LEMAC represents 0% of the MAC
TEMAC represents 100% of the MAC

43. MAC

44. Weight and Balance
For larger aircraft with many varieties of different loading configurations the weight and balance is considerably more complex than what we do with our training aircraft.
C of G can be expressed as inches aft of the reference datum, or as a % of the MAC.
C of G limits would be something such as between 12% and 47% of the MAC.

45. To determine % MAC from C of G ARM:
% MAC = ARM” – LEMAC” X 100
MAC”

46. Aircraft Weights
Empty Operating Weight (EOW): basic aircraft weight with unusable fluids
Basic Operation Weight (BOW): The EOW plus crew and their baggage, oil, fluids, equipment.
Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW): BOW plus PAYLOAD (passengers, baggage, cargo)
Landing Gross Weight (LGW): ZFW plus reserve and alternate fuel.
Take Off Gross Weight (TOGW): ZFW plus enroute fuel.
Gross Weight for Taxi (GWFT): TOGW plus run-up and taxi fuel.

47. (zero fuel weight less the basic empty weight)
Payload
Payload = ZFW – BOW
(zero fuel weight less the basic empty weight)
The payload is what the carrier gets paid for…passengers, baggage or cargo.

48. Payload Example Determine payload where: EOW + Crew = BOW (6,600lbs)
total fuel = 2,000 lbs,
crew and baggage = 600 lbs,
ZFW = 10,000lbs
EOW = 6,000lbs
EOW + Crew = BOW (6,600lbs)
ZFW – 6,600lbs = 3,400lbs.

49. REPOSITIONING OF THE C of G
To shift weight from one location to another to get within the C of G limits use this formula:
wt = d
WT D
wt is the weight to be moved in lbs
WT is the gross weight of the a/c in lbs
d is the distance the C of G moves in inches
D is the distance the item moves in inches

50. Moving the C of G Example:
An aircraft has a gross weight of 15,000 lbs with a CG 2” aft of the max. aft limit allowed.
What is the minimum amount of weight that can be moved from its current location of 320” to the fwd compartment at 170” ?
wt = 2 (distance the CG has to move)
15, (station 320 – station 170)
Answer: 200lbs is the minimum amount that must be moved fwd to the front compartment to get into limits.

51. IATRA TOPICS
The following point form slides are topics that do appear in the course outline but are areas that are specified on the Transport Canada Aircraft Type Rating Study and Reference Guide….which if you have not reviewed I would highly recommend that you spend some time looking over the topics and the CARS references provided.

52. Canadian Runway Friction Index
The CRFI is the Canadian method of determining the equivalent braking available in conditions other than dry bare runways.
The CRFI is broadcast in the form of a notam or as part of a ATIS broadcast. Friction reading from 0.1 to 1.0 represent minimum to maximum braking for the surface condition. Water over 3mm, or ice can increase braking distances from 75% to 100% and would be rated very low (0.2 – 0.4)
The CRFI can be represented in a performance graph for braking or crosswinds.

54. Hydroplaning Dynamic hydroplaning: is due to standing water
Viscous Hydroplaning: occurs on a smooth surface with a thin layer of water (most common on the rubber streaked surface at the touchdown zone).
Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning: is after a long skid when the hot tire boils the water on the runway surface under the tire and the steam prevents tire contact.

55. Hydroplaning Non-rotating tire: Rotating tire:
Hydroplaning speed = 7.7 x √PSI
Rotating tire:
Hydroplaning speed = 9 x √PSI

56. Critical Point (CP)
The CP is the point along the planned track from which it will take the same amount of time to continue to the destination as it will to return to the starting point.
The CP is calculated to provide a pilot with quick decision if a power loss or system failure occurs.