1. An Introduction to Descriptive Research
What is its goal?
To describe a characteristics of a population.
Measures a variable or set of variables as they exist naturally
Not concerned with relationships between variables
Results help capture interesting, naturally occurring behavior

2. 13.2 The Observational Research Design
The researcher observes
Systematically records the behavior of individuals to describe the behavior
Results are used simply to describe the issue being studied
13.2 The Observational Research Design

3. Behavioral Observation
What are two measurement problems?
Social Desirability Effect: behaviors are disrupted or influenced by the presence of an observer
Raises the question of demand characteristics and reactivity
Observer Bias: observations are based on a subjective judgment
Raises the question of reliability

4. Addressing the Measurement Problems
First problem can be addressed by concealing the observer
Alternatively, participants can be habituated to the observer’s presence
Requires repeated exposure until the observer’s presence is no longer a novel stimulus
Second problem is addressed by using an inter-rater reliability method
Addressing the Measurement Problems

5. Quantifying Observations
What are three techniques used to quantify behavioral observations?
Frequency method
Counting instances of each specific behavior
Duration method
Fixed-time observation
Interval method
Dividing observation period into a series of intervals and recording behavior during each interval

6. Observational Techniques
Example: Evaluating the behavior of a child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Frequency Method: Count number of off-task behaviors.
Duration Method: Measure duration of off-task and on- task behaviors
Interval Method: Taking measurements of above during discrete periods (e.g.,10 min alternating periods)

7. Sampling Observations
When observing complex situations:
Researchers can record the situation and replay the observation repeatedly to gather observations
What are three techniques used for sampling observations?
Time sampling
Event sampling
Individual sampling

8. Observational Techniques
Examples of Recording Observations: Research exploring Expressed Emotions in families with child with Schizophrenia
Recording of family interactions involving criticism
Recording all parent-child interactions involving negative evaluation
Time Sampling: alternating between recording family, coding interactions, and observing.
Event Sampling: Recording family critical behaviors for a given time period, then switching to recording parental critical behavior during the next time period.
Individual Sampling: Recording behavior of the parents first, then switching to siblings, then to the child w/dx

9. Content Analysis and Archival Research
Content analysis uses techniques of behavioral observation
Measures the occurrence of specific events in literature, movies, television programs, or similar media presenting replicas of behaviors
Archival research looks at historical records (archives)
Measures behaviors or events that occurred in the past

10. Content and Archival Research: Rules for Measurement
Measurement follows the same rules as used for behavioral observation
Establishes behavioral categories
Uses the frequency method, the duration method, or the interval method for obtaining numerical scores
Employs multiple observers for at least part of the measurement process to obtain a measure of inter-rater reliability

11. Examples of Archival Research
Example : Content Analysis of Frequency of Mental Health misinformation or stigmatization on popular television shows.
Behavior Category: Incidents of Stigmatizing or Maligning of individuals with mental illness
Frequency Coding: Sampling 1 month of tv programming during prime viewing hours (8pm-10pm).
5 separate coders view all sampled programs and record incidents of target behaviors.

12. Types of Observation Naturalistic observation Participant observation
No researcher intervention
Naturalistic observation
Researcher interacts with participants and becomes one of them
Participant observation
Researcher sets up a situation likely to produce the desired behavior in participants
Contrived observation

13. Examples of Naturalistic Observation
Example: Exploration of unknown or little understood behavioral practices;
Exploration of Cultural Grief Rituals and Grief Processing
Exploration of Cult Indoctrination: Researcher joins group and immersing in culture to collect information and insight.
Introducing a socially skilled child into a classroom for students with high fx Autism to assess whether facilitates socially conventional behaviors.

14. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Observational Research Design
Naturalistic observation
Behavior observed in the real world
Useful for nonmanipulated behaviors
Actual behaviors observed and recorded
Time-consuming
Potential for observer influence
Potential for subjective interpretation
Participant observation
When natural observation is impossible
Get information not accessible otherwise
Participation gives unique perspective
Potential for loss of objectivity
Increased chance for observer influence
Contrived observation
Do not have to wait for a behavior to occur
Less natural
Table 13.1 A Summary of the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Observational Research Design
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Observational Research Design

15. The Survey Research Design
A research study that uses a survey
Obtains a description of a particular group of individuals
Goal: obtain a “snapshot” of the group at a particular time
Common application: companies seeking accurate descriptions of their customers
Results describe the variables being studied

16. Types of Survey Questions
Open-ended questions
Introduce a topic and allow participants to respond in their own words
Question: How do study for finals?
Restricted questions
Present a limited number of response alternatives
Question: Do you join a study group for finals?
Rating-scale questions
Require selection of a numerical value on a predetermined scale (e.g., Likert Scale)
Question: How prepared are you usually for finals? (0-7)

17. A Likert-Type Rating Scale
Figure 13.1 A Likert-Type Rating Scale and a Series of Questions Examining Elementary School Students’ Attitudes about Mathematics
The participants’ responses consist of numerical ratings for each of the five questions. The numbers can be added and averaged and are compatible with most standard statistical procedures.

18. Guidelines for Constructing a Survey
Demographic questions
Sensitive questions
Grouping questions with same topic
Format should be relatively simple
Vocabulary and language style should be easy to understand
Guidelines for Constructing a Survey

19. Selecting Relevant and Representative Individuals
Select survey participants to whom the questions are relevant.
Survey participants must not be too restricted.
Make an effort to select individuals who accurately represent the group.
May need to consult professional help
Preparing surveys and identifying participants
Selecting Relevant and Representative Individuals

20. Administering a Survey
Internet surveys
Nonresponse bias
Mail surveys
Telephone surveys
Interviewer bias
In-person surveys and interviews

21. Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research
Survey Type
Strengths
Weaknesses
Internet surveys
Efficient to administer to a large number
of participants
Access to large number of individuals with common characteristics
Survey can be individualized based on participant's responses
Initial expense for site
Sample may not be representative
Cannot control composition of the sample
Mail surveys
Convenient and anonymous
Nonthreatening to participants
Easy to administer
Can be expensive
Low response rate and nonresponse bias
Unsure exactly who completes the survey
Telephone surveys
Can be conducted from home or office Participants can stay at home or office
Time-consuming
Potential for interviewer bias
In-person surveys
Efficient to administer with groups, 100% response rate, and flexible (groups or individual interviews)
Time-consuming, with individual interviews, and risk of interviewer bias
Table 13.2 A Summary of the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Survey Research Design
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research

22. Case history: a case study without any treatment or intervention
In-depth study and detailed description of a single individual (or a very small group)
May involve an intervention or treatment administered by the researcher
Case history: a case study without any treatment or intervention
13.4 The Case Study Design

23. Applications of the Case Study Design
Rare phenomena and unusual clinical cases
Gaining information about mental disorders such as multiple personality disorder
Studying individuals with brain injuries and their underlying neurological mechanisms
New therapy methods or applications

24. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case Study Research Design
Not averaged over a diverse group
Limited generalization
Detailed description
Potential for selective bias
Vivid, powerful, convincing
Potential for subjective interpretation
Compatible with clinical work
Can study rare and unusual events
Can identify exceptions to the rule
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case Study Research Design

25. Case of “Genie”
Case analysis of the consequences of severe neglect and abuse on child development and other sequelae.
Example: Examination of Language Development; Concept of “Critical Periods” of Language acquisition
%20The%20development%20of%20language%20in%20Geni e.pdf