1. Earth Systems: Introduction and Geology

2. Metric Units to Know

3. APES Math to Know For this unit, you should be able to:
Make metric conversions
Perform a dimensional analysis
Use scientific notation
Calculate percentages
Calculate percent change

5. Controlled Experiments

7. Common pH

8. Parts of a Chemical Reaction (Combustion of methane)
REACTANTS
PRODUCTS

9. Feedback Loops Positive Feedback Negative Feedback
One variable amplifies another
“Snowball effect”
Example: Snow reflects sunlight, causing temperature to decrease. Decreasing temperatures lead to more snow.
Negative Feedback
Increase in one variable decreases another
Returns a system to its original state
Example: Your body sweats when body temperature rises. Evaporating sweat causes body temperature to decrease.

10. Geologic Time Scale 4 Distinct Eras
-used by scientists to describe the timing of Earth’s past events.
4 Distinct Eras
Precambrian(Earth formation)
2) Paleozoic(fish & reptiles)
3) Mesozoic(dinosaurs)
4) Cenozoic(mammals)
-separated by major extinctions.

11. Major Life events in Geologic Time

12. GEOLOGY
Study of Earth’s interior & exterior processes as it relates to minerals and land formations.
3 Main Layers of Earth
1) Core- innermost zone
solid inner core of mostly iron metal
liquid outer core
2) Mantle- thick, solid but fluid zone outside the core
3) Crust- outermost layer, mostly oxygen & silicates, like quartz
*Lithosphere- land area of Earth consisting of the
crust and outer mantle.

13. Earth’s Layers

14. Rock Cycle process of rocks changing from one form to another Mineral
- naturally occurring
- solid element/compound
- chemical formula
- inorganic
- forms crystals
Rock
- any solid material that makes up a continuous
segment of Earth’s crust.
- usually made of 2 or more minerals

15. Rock Types 1) Igneous - formed from cooled magma 2) Sedimentary
- combination of different sediments
pressed together
3) Metamorphic
- formed by high temp. & pressure
under the Earth
(Obsidian)
(Breccia)
(Gneiss)

17. Plate Tectonics Movement of Earth’s rigid plates
Caused by the flow of heat energy underneath.
Plate movement creates 3 boundary types:
1) Divergent plate boundary
- plates that move apart
- creates rifts in continental crust and new seafloor at mid ocean ridges
2) Convergent plate boundary
- plates that push together
- creates mountains, subduction zones, volcanic island arcs
3) Transform Fault boundary
- plates that slide past each other
- creates earthquakes and displacement, like San Andreas Fault

18. Plate Boundaries

19. RING OF FIRE

20. Earthquake
- abrupt movement along a fault

21. Earthquake Triangulation
Using data for P and S Wave time intervals and at least three seismograph stations, scientists can locate an earthquake’s epicenter.

22. Volcano area where magma reaches the surface
releases solid objects, liquid lava, & gases
found near plate boundaries.

23. Volcanic Eruptions Depend on Dissolved gases (more gas=more explosive)
Viscosity of magma (high viscosity [thick] magma will contribute to building more pressure inside the volcano)

24. External Forces
1) Weathering
- wearing down of rock by:
a) mechanical weathering
- physical actions
b) chemical weathering
- oxygen, carbon dioxide, water
Climates that are warmer and wetter have higher rates of weathering.
1) Erosion
- moving sediment from place to place

25. Major Agents of Erosion
Running water
Wind
Gravity
Glaciers
Organisms

26. Soil Soil Profile - formed by: - weathering of rock
mixture of humus, rocks, air,
minerals, water, & organisms
- formed by:
- weathering of rock
- deposition of sediments
- decomposition of organic
matter
Soil formation is influenced by
Parent material
Climate
Topography
Organisms
Time

27. Soil Composition
- soil has a characteristic color, texture, structure, &
mineral content.
- Five soil composition types are:
1) Desert- mostly sand & pebbles
2) Grassland- rich humus & clay
3) Rain forest- acidic, light humus, some clay
4) Deciduous forest- humus-mineral mixture
5) Coniferous forest- acidic humus

28. Soil Types/Textures - texture determines permeability & porosity Types
1) clay- very fine particles
2) silt- fine particles
3) sand- medium size particles
4) gravel- coarse particles
Small particles = low permeability, high porosity
Large particles= high permeability, low porosity
Loam- mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel…best for plants due to mid-levels of water absorption and drainage.

29. Soil Types/Textures

30. Soil Erosion - movement of topsoil from one place to another Causes:
1) flowing water
2) wind
3) human activities (farming, logging, overgrazing)
Results:
1) loss of soil fertility & ability to hold water
2) sediment runoff causing pollution

31. Desertification - the process that changes a semiarid region into
an unproductive desert region.
Causes:
overgrazing, deforestation, erosion, salinization,
surface mining, soil compaction
Solutions:
1) Reduce loss of vegetation
2) Plant new vegetation that will reduce erosion

32. Excessive Irrigation - too much watering leads to: 1) Salinization
- salt accumulation due to evaporation of
unabsorbed water.
- excess salt becomes harmful to crops
2) Waterlogging
- saturating the ground causing excess salt
to concentrate at the roots
Solutions
- irrigate crops more efficiently
- plant salt tolerant crops

33. Soil Conservation Methods for reducing erosion:
1) Conservation-tillage farming
- farming with less soil tillage
- conventional-tillage leaves soil bare and
vulnerable to erosion.
2) Terracing
- cutting level layers into a slope for farming
3) Contour Farming
- plowing a field across the contour of a slope

34. 4) Strip cropping
- varying the type of crop planted from row to row
5) Alley cropping
- planting crops between rows of trees/shrubs
6) Wind breaks
- planting trees along the edge of fields