1. Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Weather & Climate
Hydrosphere: the Earth’s water & ice layer:
97% salt water & 3% fresh water
(3/4 of fresh water is in ice,
nearly 1/4 is ground water,
less than 1% is in lakes,
rivers, & is water vapor)
Water Cycle: Continuous
flow of water on Earth
(Evaporation, Condensation,
Precipitation).
Smaller streams empty into rivers,
which empty into larger rivers,
then finally to the ocean.

2. River Basins: - In the United States, all rivers between the Rocky Mountains & Appalachian Mountains empty into the Gulf of Mexico (with the exception of rivers around the Great Lakes) - Rivers west of the Continental Divide (highest elevation of the Rockies) empty into the Pacific Ocean. (Great Salt Lake basin is exception) - Rivers to the east of the Appalachians empty into the Atlantic Ocean. -Due to gravity water flows down hill from the headwaters to the ocean, carrying dissolved minerals and gases to the ocean.

3. Stream Development
Stream Channel: a narrow pathway carved into sediment or
rock by moving water.
Meander: bend or curve in a stream
channel caused by moving water.
In a meandering stream, erosion occurs
on the outside curve because water is
moving faster at that point, deposition
occurs on the inside curve because water is
moving slower at that point.
An ox bow lake is created over time as erosion
and deposition changes the river's course.
Delta is a landform that forms from deposition
of sediment carried by a river as the flow leaves its
mouth and enters slower-moving or
standing water.
Life History of a stream video (6 ¼ minutes)

4. Movement and Storage of Groundwater
Infiltration: movement of water through soil & rock.
Permeability: the ability of water to penetrate.
Zone of Aeration: soil pore spaces with water & air.
Zone of Saturation: all pore spaces are filled with water.
Water table: top of the zone of saturation (varies with rainfall rates).
Aquifer: place underground where water is stored.
Aquiclude: impermeable rock layer that prevents infiltration.
Spring: water coming out of a perched aquifer on an aquiclude.

5. Karst topography is characterized by caves & sinkholes.
Cave Development:
1. As water infiltrates
the ground it chemically reacts with
sedimentary rock to dissolve it.
2. A small underground stream forms
which expands the stream channel.
3. The stream drops through openings
dissolved in the rock leaving a
cave.
4. Infiltration continues to dissolve the
roof of the cave until it eventually
collapses due to the weight above
creating a sinkhole.
Anything that goes into a cave or
sinkhole quickly enters the water
supply without filtration of pollutants!
DO NOT dispose of trash in sinkholes!

6. Atmosphere: the thin mixture of gases that surround the Earth
78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% trace gases (carbon dioxide, argon, water vapor, etc.)
temperature and pressure decrease with elevation (temp. ↓ 6.5°C per 1 km) (14.7 PSI at sea level)
type and percentages of gases remains the same, but density decreases

7. Layers of the atmosphere
Thermosphere (heat): Ionosphere & Exosphere. From 80 km into outer space.
Mesosphere (middle): From 50 – 80 km up.
Stratosphere (spreading out): From 12 – 50 km.
Troposphere (turning): From 0 to 12 km. Temperatures ↓ at a rate of 6.5°C per km. (weather layer)

8. Global convection currents: movement of air between the equator and poles, caused by temperature differences, that produce global wind patterns.
Coriolis Effect: The way Earth’s rotation makes winds in the Northern Hemisphere curve to the right (eastward) and winds in the Southern Hemisphere curve to the left. (westward).

9. Global Atmospheric Wind Patterns:
Doldrums: near equator, a calm area where warm air rises
Tradewinds: blow from the horse latitudes (calm areas of falling air) toward the equator
Horse Latitudes: areas of calm where cool air sinks at the tropics
Prevailing Westerlies: blow away
from the horse latitudes toward the
poles (primary wind pattern for KY)
Polar Easterlies: cold polar air blowing away from the poles

10. Air Masses affect weather and climate.
Maritime Polar: cool moist air from over polar water
Maritime Tropical: warm moist air from over tropical water
Continental Polar: cold dry air from over polar land
Continental Tropical: hot dry air from over tropical land
Arctic: cold dry air, receives little solar radiation in winter, but near constant solar radiation in summer.

11. Fronts affect weather
Cold Front: cold air moves under warmer air – storms
Warm Front: warm air moves over colder air – light precipitation, followed by warm/dry weather
Occluded Front: cold & cool air masses come together & force warm air up – light precipitation
Stationary Front:
stays in one place
for extended time.

12. Weather: the current atmospheric phenomena of an area
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere at a given temperature
Clouds form as water vapor condenses on condensation nuclei (particulates of dust, smoke, or ash) as the air cools.
Precipitation: H2O falling to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, hail.

13. High and Low Pressure Areas: H=dry weather; L=wet weather.
Winds are caused by differences in pressure due to the imbalanced heating of Earth’s surface.
High and Low Pressure Areas: H=dry weather; L=wet weather.

14. Weather Forecasting Maps

15. Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth on its axis
Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth on its axis. Seasons are NOT caused by distance from the Sun.

16. Climate: typical weather pattern in an area over a long period of time
Main factors that influence temperature:
- distance from large bodies of water (water holds heat and keep coastal areas more moderate, in-land areas have wider temperature extremes)
- ocean currents (currents from the equator bring warm air,
from poles bring cold air)
- latitude (distance from the equator)
- altitude (elevation above sea level)

17. Main factors that affect precipitation are prevailing winds & the presence of mountains
-Mountain Effects on Climate: * Windward: water vapor condenses in rising air on
windward side of the mountain chain producing
precipitation. Produces a very moist climate * Leeward: dry air moves over the top of the mountain chain
producing a very dry climate.

18. Major Climate Zones:
Tropical Rainforest: wet, over 100 inches precipitation, 70 – 80 ºF.
Desert: dry, less than 10 inches precipitation, hot, up to 120 ºF.
Grassland: moist, 10 – 30 inches precipitation, cold winters & hot summers, -40 – 110 ºF.
Temperate Marine (mediteranean/subtropical): moist, 20 – 50 inches precipitation, moderate temps, 40 – 90 ºF.
Deciduous Forest (temperate continental): moist, 20 – 40 inches precipitation, cold winters & hot summers, -20 – 100 ºF. (Kentucky)
Coniferous Forest (taiga/boreal forest): moist, 20 – 30 inches precipitation, cool climate, -30 – 70 ºF.
Tundra (permafrost): moist, 10 – 20 inches of precipitation, cold, -70 – 55 ºF.
Highlands: mountainous regions with similar climates to tundra.
Polar: permanently covered in ice

19. 46% of all weather related US deaths are from cold.
Severe Weather
46% of all weather related US deaths are from cold.
2000+ per year

20. 28% of all weather related US deaths are from heat.
Severe Weather
28% of all weather related US deaths are from heat.
650+ deaths per year.

21. Severe Weather Thunderstorms – severe storm of thunder, lightning,
heavy rain and/or hail.
Flooding – temporary rise in water level when the
ground can’t soak up rainfall fast enough % of weather related deaths in US; 200+ deaths per year
Lightning – static electric discharge between clouds &
Earth. Temperature can exceed 50,000 ̊F.
50+ deaths in deaths per year in US.
Lightning – Thunder ratio to determine distance.
Seconds from flash divided by 5 = miles.
Ex:10s ÷ 5 =
2 miles away

22. Severe Weather Tornadoes – a rotating column
of air from thunderclouds.
4% of weather related deaths in US;
80+ deaths per year
Hurricanes – storm with violent winds, flooding, and storm surges produced by tropical cyclones.
89% of deaths are from
storm surge & flooding.