1. Observation
Watching

2. Observation as a Technique
In a narrow sense observation is a technique used for gathering data
The observation technique could be used with any method:
In descriptive studies, taking data from naturally occurring situations
In an experiment as a measure of the DV

3. Observation as a Technique
Can be used in an experiment as a technique to count how many times people do certain things (e.g. Bandura’s Bobo doll study)
Observation as a Technique
Observation can also be used in field experiments. E.g. Uetake, Hurnik & Johnsom (1997) played music to cows - on music days more cows came near the milking area.

4. Data gathering devices
Film or video recording
Visual recordings can be anaysed later and in researchers own time, can view repeatedly to increase understanding
Still camera
Audio tape (spoken observation)
Hand-written notes, ratings or coding on the spot
One-way mirrors are often used in observations but beware of ethical issues

5. Observation Distinctions
There are 6 main distinctions or dimensions on which observations will vary:
Participant vs Non-participant
Direct vs Indirect
Disclosed vs Undisclosed
Time sampling vs Event sampling
Naturalistic setting vs Controlled setting
Structured vs Unstructured

6. 1. Participant vs Non-Participant

7. Non-participant observation
In participant observation the observer joins or works with the group of people observed
For example, in Rosenhan’s study (1973) observers became pseudopatients in a psychiatric ward (detained between days, given 2100 pills)
The more common form of observation is non- participant whereby the observer does not interact with the group being observed

8. Advantages
Disadvantages
Behaviour is usually genuine and natural, unless participants are aware of researcher’s presence and aims.
Public checks on data difficult
Trust and informality give info and insights unavailable in other methods (insider information)
Researcher may be only witness
Researcher’s interactions with participants may alter normal relations.
Problem of ‘blowing cover’
Replication often more difficult than in structured approaches, but this may be irrelevant
Researcher may have to rely on memory for data collection
Meanings of participant’s behaviour are more readily available

9. Advantages
Disadvantages
Behaviour is usually genuine and natural, unless participants are aware of researcher’s presence and aims.
Public checks on data difficult
Trust and informality give info and insights unavailable in other methods (insider information)
Researcher may be only witness
Researcher’s interactions with participants may alter normal relations.
Problem of ‘blowing cover’
Replication often more difficult than in structured approaches, but this may be irrelevant
Researcher may have to rely on memory for data collection
Meanings of participant’s behaviour are more readily available

10. Advantages
Disadvantages
More objective
No problems with ‘blowing cover’
No need to rely on memory
Normal relations will not be affected by researcher interaction
Researcher may not be able to get close enough to obtained the required information

11. Advantages
Disadvantages
More objective
No problems with ‘blowing cover’
No need to rely on memory
Normal relations will not be affected by researcher interaction
Researcher may not be able to get close enough to obtained the required information

12. 2. Direct vs Indirect

13. Direct
Indirect
being there and then to observe first-hand
looking at data which has already been collected

14. Advantages
Disadvantages
More realistic to record things as they happen
Unable to rewind and review
Difficult to record everything in real-time
Requires less equipment and logistics
Possible to miss subtle behaviours
Less time-consuming
Observer bias may have an impact

15. Advantages
Disadvantages
More realistic to record things as they happen
Unable to rewind and review
Difficult to record everything in real-time
Requires less equipment and logistics
Possible to miss subtle behaviours
Less time-consuming
Observer bias may have an impact

16. Advantages
Disadvantages
Can rewind and review observation as many times as you want
Time-consuming
Can require more equipment and logistics
More chance to pick up on subtle behaviours and small details
Cheaper way of gathering data

17. Advantages
Disadvantages
Can rewind and review observation as many times as you want
Time-consuming
Can require more equipment and logistics
More chance to pick up on subtle behaviours and small details
Cheaper way of gathering data

18. 3. Disclosed vs Undisclosed

19. Disclosed and undisclosed observation
(NB: The terms ‘overt’ and ‘covert’ refer to this same dimension)
the participants are made aware of the fact that they are being observed
participants are unaware that they are being observed
one-way mirrors are often used for this purpose

20. Advantages
Disadvantages
Avoids ethical issues associated with undisclosed observations – consent, deception
Demand characteristics – if aware that they are being observed, participants might try to obtain clues from observers
Hawthorne Effect – participants’ behaviour might be affected simply by their knowing that they are the subject of research study

21. Advantages
Disadvantages
Avoids ethical issues associated with undisclosed observations – consent, deception
Demand characteristics – if aware that they are being observed, participants might try to obtain clues from observers
Hawthorne Effect – participants’ behaviour might be affected simply by their knowing that they are the subject of research study

22. Advantages
Disadvantages
ethical issues associated– consent, deception
Demand characteristics – if aware that they are being observed, participants might try to obtain clues from observers
Behaviour more likely to be valid
Hawthorne Effect – participants’ behaviour might be affected simply by their knowing that they are the subject of research study

23. Advantages
Disadvantages
ethical issues associated consent, deception
Demand characteristics – if aware that they are being observed, participants might try to obtain clues from observers
Behaviour more likely to be valid
Hawthorne Effect – participants’ behaviour might be affected simply by their knowing that they are the subject of research study

24. 4. Time Sampling vs Event Sampling

25. Data Sampling
Observing and recording everything a person or group of people do would be an almost impossible task, creating a vast amount of data and being far too time-consuming
Researchers therefore take a sample of data.
Time sampling: observing only at the end of specific intervals, for example once a minute
Event sampling: concentrating on specific types of event each time they occur (fight, smile, etc.)

26. Time Sampling
Event Sampling
observing only at the end of specific intervals, for example once a minute
concentrating on specific types of event each time they occur (fight, smile, etc.)

27. Advantages
Disadvantages
Time between observations to record data
Provides snapshot
Less observations to make
No data from gaps between observations therefore may not be representative

28. Advantages
Disadvantages
Time between observations to record data
Provides snapshot
Less observations to make
No data from gaps between observations therefore may not be representative

29. Advantages
Disadvantages
May miss behaviours if too many happen at once
Easy to tally pre-selected behaviours
Can miss interesting events not listed
Useful if behaviour only happens occasionally

30. Advantages
Disadvantages
May miss behaviours if too many happen at once
Easy to tally pre-selected behaviours
Can miss interesting events not listed
Useful if behaviour only happens occasionally

31. 5. Naturalistic vs Controlled setting

32. Controlled observation in a laboratory
Naturalistic observation
Controlled observation in a laboratory
Some variables (e.g. the toys available) are controlled by the researcher reducing the occurrence of natural behaviour
behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything has been left as it is normally

33. Naturalistic observation

34. Advantages
Disadvantages
Extraneous variables poorly controlled and pose much greater threats to validity than in the laboratory
Even if target is aware of being observed, natural setting ensures that behaviour observed is usually more realistic than it could be in the laboratory.
Reactivity not a problem where participants unaware of being in research context and, if so, genuine behaviour produced.
Greater ambiguity from extraneous variables and unpredictable behaviour gives greater potential for observer bias than in more structured/laboratory studies

35. Advantages
Disadvantages
Extraneous variables poorly controlled and pose much greater threats to validity than in the laboratory
Even if target is aware of being observed, natural setting ensures that behaviour observed is usually more realistic than it could be in the laboratory.
Reactivity not a problem where participants unaware of being in research context and, if so, genuine behaviour produced.
Greater ambiguity from extraneous variables and unpredictable behaviour gives greater potential for observer bias than in more structured/laboratory studies

36. Advantages
Disadvantages
Participants can guess research aim and can act in a socially desirable manner
Behaviour studied can be more flexible and continuous
If conducted in an artificial environment, might seriously distort natural behaviour patterns
If used in an experiment, the cause-effect relationship less ambiguous than in non-experimental settings

37. Advantages
Disadvantages
Participants can guess research aim and can act in a socially desirable manner
Behaviour studied can be more flexible and continuous
If conducted in an artificial environment, might seriously distort natural behaviour patterns
If used in an experiment, the cause-effect relationship less ambiguous than in non-experimental settings

38. 6. Structured vs Unstructured

39. Unstructured Observation
Often qualitative data made quantitative by recording using a coding system (behaviour checklist)
Record frequency of events, time or use scale; rate behaviour according to a structured scale 1-10
Observers need to be trained in the use of a coding system and to a good level of agreement prior to main data-gathering sessions (inter-observer reliability)
Researcher records all relevant behaviour but has no system
Behaviour studied is largely unpredictable

40. Behavior Checklist/Coding
Can be adopted from other studies or made up new, but should be…
Objective
Cover all possible component behaviors, avoid waste bucket
Have no overlapping categories
Child
Hits or shoves other with force-unprovoked
Hits or shoves other with force-following peer
Hits or shoves other with force-retaliation
Shouts at other –unprovoked
Shouts at other -following peer
Shouts at other-retaliation A B

41. Advantages
Disadvantages
Reduction of behaviour to artificially isolated units can provide meaningless data
Richness of data can be lost
Quantitative data recorded
Easier to record observed behaviours
Social meaning may not be taken into account

42. Advantages
Disadvantages
Reduction of behaviour to artificially isolated units can provide meaningless data
Richness of data can be lost
Quantitative data recorded
Easier to record observed behaviours
Social meaning may not be taken into account

43. Advantages
Disadvantages
Produce rich qualitative data
Allows for study of unpredictable behaviour
Time-consuming
Might only record the most eye-catching behaviours, which might actually not be most relevant or important

44. Advantages
Disadvantages
Produce rich qualitative data
Allows for study of unpredictable behaviour
Time-consuming
Might only record the most eye-catching behaviours, which might actually not be most relevant or important

45. Other Types

46. Role play and Simulation
In some cases participants observe role-plays (non-active role), but, by and large, it is participants’ role-playing that is observed (active role).
Active role- participant’s are asked to actively play a role within a stimulated social setting (e.g. being a prisoner or guard at Zimbardo’s (1972) prison study)
Non-active role- participants are asked to watch a role play and then to report feelings, reactions or suggestions. In this case stimulation simply serves as material for a question-asking method.
Actor & Audience (Storms, 1973)
Disadvantages: role play can be non-spontaneous and passive, act in socially desirable and superficial ways

47. Diary Method
Diaries are kept during most participant observation studies (Darwin, Piaget)
Where observation is covert, these will be constructed at the end of each day, from memory or from discretely jotted notes recorded where opportunities have arisen .
Participants could also be asked to keep their own diaries, which will be later subjected to content analysis by the observer.

48. Evaluation of Observation Technique

49. Advantages of observation
Can give rich information and unexpected results - suggesting new avenues for future research
A picture can be provided of real-life in a naturalistic setting
Researcher often intrudes very little into situation
This method tells us not only what is going on but also who is involved, when and where things happen
It can illuminate processes and examine causality, suggesting why things happen as they do in certain settings
Gives access to non-verbal cues and phenomena not amenable to experimentation
Situations not replicable in laboratory can be examined (weddings, behaviors in bars)
Chronology of events can be taken into account, continuities over time can be looked at

50. Disadvantages of Observational Method
Internal validity
Results can be very subjective
Reactivity of the observer on the situation (difficult to stand back from the process that one is part of)
External validity
Sample is often unrepresentative
Cultural differences often not taken into account
Often time-consuming and labour-intensive