1. Research Methods
Objective: Students will compare and contrast research methods in order to develop their own research study.
Drill: Write the question and your response on the sheet you are using for drills. Write down the correct answer and WHY it is correct.
A therapist who says that she uses whatever psychological perspective “works best” for each patient might be best described as
Socio-cultural
Humanist
Eclectic
Psychoanalytical
Functionalist

2. The Scientific Method
Hypothesis- Testable prediction that gives direction to research.
Theory- set of tested principles that organizes observations and explains newly discovered facts.
Operationally Defined Results use precise concept, procedures and measures.
Replication. This allows research to be replicated so results can be verified. Confidence in research grows.
Generalize results- results need to have a representative or stratified sample to ensure results can be generalized to the larger population.

3. Research Methods Applied versus basic research
Basic- helps us understand a topic because we are interested.
Applied- helps us to solve problems
Field or Laboratory Research
Specific hypotheses can be tested in a variety of ways.
Case study
Naturalistic observation
Survey
Longitudinal Studies
Correlational study
Experiments

4. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
PROS:
Provides descriptive data
CONS:
Participants may act differently if they know they are being observed (observer effect)
Observer Bias: Occurs when researchers see what they expect to see or record only selected details
Jane Goodall was famous for her naturalistic observation of chimpanzees in the wild
Psychology 7e in Modules

5. Case Study
A technique in which one person (or a small group) is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
PROS: Provide detailed descriptive analyses of new, complex, or rare phenomena
CONS: may not provide representative picture of phenomena (not able to generalize)
Preview Question 8: How do psychologists observe and describe behavior?
Sigmund Freud used this technique!
Psychology 7e in Modules

6. Survey
A technique for getting the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
PROS: gathers large amounts of descriptive data relatively quickly and inexpensively CONS: sampling errors, poorly phrased questions and response biases can distort results- people may respond in a socially acceptable way
Example: Do you wash your hands after you go to the bathroom?
Psychology 7e in Modules

7. Wording Effects Problems with Surveys
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television?

8. Correlations and Relationships
Correlational Studies: Find existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables. Ask, how well does A predict B?
Correlation indicates a relationship, not a CAUSE of an event.
Correlation versus Causation Polio Example

11. Correlation Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships or or
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression
could cause
(2)
Depression
Low self-esteem
could cause or
Low self-esteem
Depression
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause or
and

12. Experiments
To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experiments
Research that manipulates a variable
Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior
Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except the condition you are varying (Experimental and Control Group)
Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior
Issue:
Often completed in laboratory, a controlled environment, so results may not extend to real world settings.
Researcher cannot always control all factors of research
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13. Variables
Definition: Any condition that can change, and might affect, experiment's outcome
Independent Variable: Condition(s) altered by the experimenter; experimenter sets their size, amount, or value; these are suspected causes for behavioral differences
Dependent Variable: Demonstrates effects that independent variables have on behavior
Extraneous/ Confounding Variables: Conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment (e.g., number of hours slept before the experiment)
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14. Experiments
Hypothesis: Taking tests in hot rooms decreases test scores.
Students are randomly assigned to take a test in either a hot room or a comfortable room. Test scores will be compared to see if hot rooms negatively affect test-taking.
What is the independent variable?
Students
Room temperature
Test scores
Tests
What is the dependent variable?
Students
Hot room
Comfortable room
Test scores
Students frequently try to make the participants in studies the independent or dependent variable.

15. Experiments
Hypothesis: Newborns gaze longer at a drawing of a face-like image than at a bull’s-eye pattern.
Newborns are shown, in random order, the stimuli: A face-like image, a bull’s-eye pattern, and a blank screen. Each newborn is timed to see how long they look at each.
What is the independent variable?
Random order
Length of gaze
The stimuli
Newborns
What is the dependent variable?
Newborns
Length of gaze
Facelike image and bull’s-eye pattern
All of the stimuli
This hypothesis was taken from the chapter 5 fact or falsehood handout. For this experiment, ask students why the images need to be presented in random order.

16. Experiments
Hypothesis: Televised violence leads to aggressive behavior by teenagers who watch the programs.
Teenagers ages are randomly assigned to watch either a violent movie or an equally engaging but non-violent movie. Afterwards while playing a game, they are given an opportunity to punish their competitor by blasting a loud sound in their competitor’s headphones. The teenage participants get to choose how long to administer the sound.
What is the independent variable?
The competitor
Type of movie
Length of the loud sound
Teenage participants
What is the dependent variable?
Length of the loud sound
Violent movie
Teenage participants
Game competitor
This hypothesis was taken from the chapter 7 fact or falsehood handout. For this experiment discuss the role of deception. The study would be designed so that the teenagers thought they were participating in 2 separate studies. Following the movies, the participants may be given a bogus questionnaire so that they’d think the study was over and that they were moving on to a second study on competition, say. You may also want to discuss confounding variables here. Why did the control group movie need to be equally engaging?

17. Sampling Population Representative Sample Random Sample
Stratified Sample
Selection Factor Bias: When subjects aren’t representative of the target population being studied.

18. Groups
Experimental Group: The group of subjects that gets the independent variable
Control Group: The group of subjects that gets all conditions EXCEPT the independent variable
Random Assignment: Subject has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group. Helps to minimize issues with differences between the control and experimental groups.
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19. Experimental Group Scenario
A study was created to test the effects of jazz on people’s sleep patterns. The hypothesis of the experiment was that if people listened to jazz music as they fall asleep, they will sleep for longer periods of time. For the experiment, 2 groups of people were created. One group was placed in a quiet room where they went to sleep and they were timed on how long they slept. The other group was placed in a room where jazz music played softly as they began to sleep and played throughout the night. As each group awoke, their sleep times were monitored.
What is the independent variable? Dependent variable?
Control Group? Experimental Group?

20. Experimental Group Scenario
A study was created to test the effects of fear in children. The hypothesis of the experimenters was that if babies were exposed to fuzzy bunnies and at the same time a loud cymbal was struck close behind them, then that child would be afraid of all fuzzy things. Another group of children would be exposed to bunnies without any loud noises. The study was carried out as planned and as a result, hundreds of young children developed fear of all cute furry bunny rabbits.
What is the independent variable? Dependent variable?
Control Group? Experimental Group?

21. Experimenter Effects Issues with experiments:
Often conducted in a lab (to control confounding variables), but results may not always apply in the real world. Other issues:
Experimenter Bias: Changes in behavior caused by the unintended influence of the experimenter
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come true

22. Placebo Effects
Placebo: A fake pill (sugar) or injection (saline). Given to the control group.
Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that result from belief that one has ingested a drug
Placebos alter our expectations about our own emotional and physical reactions
These expectancies then influence bodily activities
Relieve pain by getting pituitary to release endorphins
Also gain some effect through learning
Placebo Effect

23. Controls for Experiment Bias
Single Blind Experiment: Only the subjects have no idea whether they get real treatment or placebo
Double Blind Experiment: The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects get real treatment or placebo
Best type of experiment if properly set up
Required by FDA when new drugs are tested and released.
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24. Types of Studies:
Longitudinal Study: a study conducted on participants over a long period of time (months, years) Pros: better data because of how long you study the participants Cons: some participants could back out after a while, or die
Example: Tracking IQ scores of children who were breastfed as infants compared to children who were not breastfed as infants.

25. Types of Studies:
Cross-Sectional study: a study conducted on participants of different age groups
Pros: better comparative data between different age groups
Cons: Age is the main factor measured, even though the participants may be reacting because of other variables
Example: Researchers study which age groups watch which T.V. shows to determine what products to advertise during commercial breaks.

26. Goals of Research Validity: Measures what it is suppose to measure.
Example: If you take an English test at the end of the unit instead of a psych test, the test is not measuring what it is suppose to measure.
Reliability: Consistently reaches same conclusions.
Internal: Were research methods standardized?
Example: Was an IQ test different (one easy, one hard) when used to gain information?
External: When re-tested, do results end up the same?