1. Higher Human Biology Unit 3 – Neurobiology and Immunology
Section 19 - Memory

2. a) Memory We will be learning…
To state that memory includes past experiences, knowledge and thoughts.
To describe the process of encoding
To describe the process of memory storage and retrieval of information.
To explain that all information passes though sensory memory and enters the short term memory (STM).
Once information has passed through the short term memory it is either discarded or transferred to the long- term memory (LTM)

3. What is Memory
Memory is the capacity of the brain to store information, retain it and retrieve it as and when required.
The brain can capture images of sights, sounds, smells, tactile sensations and emotions from any moment.
Memories include past experiences, knowledge and thoughts. They allow us to deal with current and future experiences based on the past memories.
All information which enters the brain passes through sensory memory and enters the short term memory (STM).
Information can then be transferred to the long term memory (LTM) or is discarded.

4. Memory Challenges 2 1 Start Timer 52 card pick up – with fruit
Rehearsal - New skills to learn – e.g.
Juggling
playing a musical instrument - spoons
Origami or napkin folding
Learn a new language
Shadow animals on the wall
Moonwalk
Sign Language
Tie a fisherman's knot
Identify something e.g. car types or dog breeds? 1

5. Receiving Information
Each of our sense organs continuously feeds impulses into the region of the cerebrum which relates to that particular sense. Each form of sensory information is processed separately:
Auditory - sounds
Visual – sight
Tactile – touch, taste, textures

6. Encoding
The quality of the memory depends on the attention given to the encoding of it.
Encoding is the conversion of one or more nerve impulses into a form that can be received and stored by the brain. This means that it can be retrieved from the STM or LTM at a later date.
Information can be encoded using:
shallow encoding, such as repetition, or
elaborative encoding, such as linking with previous memories, which is considered as a deeper form of encoding.

7. How do we Store Memories?
A memorable event causes neurons to fire more frequently, making the experience more intense and increasing the likelihood that the event is encoded as a memory. Emotion tends to increase attention, and the emotional element of an event is processed on an unconscious pathway. The perceived sensations are decoded in the various sensory areas of the cortex, and then combined in the brain’s hippocampus into one single experience. The hippocampus is then responsible for analysing these inputs and ultimately deciding if they will be committed to long-term memory. It acts as a kind of sorting centre where the new sensations are compared and associated with previously recorded ones.

8. How do we Retrieve Memories
Once information has been encoded and stored in memory, it must be retrieved in order to be used. There are four basic ways in which information can be pulled from long-term memory
Recall
Recollection
Recognition
Relearning

9. Selective Sensory Memory
The brain is constantly receiving information from sense organs which transmits the information to the brain.
The brain has to select what information it stores or else it would become cluttered.
The brain must encode this chosen information into a form that it can process to store in the short term or for a longer term.
If this information is encoded and stored correctly then it can be retrieved later.

10. Memory Span - Information is either discarded or past to the LTM
We often think of short-term memory as information newly-received from the senses, but it may include information recently retrieved from long-term memory or recent mental processing. We can call this extended form of short-term memory 'working memory'. Short- term memory has a limited facility to store information which is known as the memory span.

11. b) Sensory Memory We will be learning…
To describe that sensory information retains all the visual and auditory input received for a few seconds.
Following this only selected images and sounds are encoded into short term memory.

12. Three Levels of Memory
Level 1
Level 3
Level 2

13. Level 1 - Sensory Memory
Sensory memory retains all visual and auditory input but for a very short period of time e.g. 0.5s for visual stimuli and 2s for auditory.
The brain selects relevant pieces of information to send to the short-term memory (STM)

14. Level 2 - Short Term Memory (STM)
Short term memory (STM) has a limited storage capacity or ‘memory span’ holding about seven items of information for roughly 30 seconds. During this time the retrieval of items is very accurate.
The information in the STM must be passed to the long term memory or it will be lost by:
displacement – the pushing out of ‘old’ information by new information
decay – the breakdown of a fragile ‘memory trace’ formed when a group of neurons briefly became activated.

15. c) Short-Term Memory (STM)
We will be learning…
To state that short term memory has a limited capacity
To state that short term memory only holds information for a short period of time
To describe “chunking”, memory span, serial position effect, rehearsal, displacement and decay
To explain how the short term memory can perform simple cognitive tasks

16. Short Term Memory (STM)
Chunking
‘Chunking’ is the term given to the organisation of many pieces of information into smaller chunks of information.
e.g. the area code for Glasgow is Individually, this can be thought of as four pieces of information but chunking allows us reduce this to one piece of information.
Grouping many pieces of information into smaller chunks allows us to improve our short term memory span.

17. Short Term Memory (STM)
Serial Position Effect
When information is viewed in a sequence, the first and last few pieces of information are remembered best. This memory pattern is known as the serial position effect.

18. Short Term Memory (STM)
Serial Position Effect
The first few pieces of information are remembered as there has been enough time for rehearsal, and the information has been transferred to long term memory.
The middle pieces of information are quickly forgotten because the short term memory is crowded with information.
The last pieces of information are remembered because they have not yet been displaced from the STM.

19. Short Term Memory (STM)
Serial Position Effect
Advertisers pay more for the first and last advert slots to take advantage of the serial position effect.
Jim Davidson’s generation game

20. Short Term Memory (STM)
Rehearsal
Items can be maintained within the short term memory for longer periods of time through rehearsal.
Rehearsal involves repeating a piece of information many times, either silently or aloud.
This also helps to transfer this information to the long term memory (LTM).

21. Short Term Memory (STM)
Working Memory
Working memory is an extension of the STM.
It allows us to actively process information while it is held in the STM and allows us to carry out simple cognitive tasks, such as counting.
e.g. allows you to picture your home and count the number of doors within.

22. d) Long-term Memory (STM)
We will be learning…
To state that long term memory has an unlimited capacity
To state that long term memory can hold information for a long time
To describe how information is transferred from the short term memory to the long term memory by rehearsal, organisation and elaboration
To state that retrieval is aided by the use of contextual cues

23. Level 3 - Long Term Memory (LTM)
The long term memory is thought to be able to hold an unlimited amount of information.
In order for information to be transferred from the STM to the LTM, information must be encoded (converted to a form that the brain can process and store).
During encoding the items are organised into categories such as skills, personal memories or facts.

24. Long Term Memory (LTM)
Information can be transferred to the LTM successfully by:
Rehearsal
Organisation
Elaboration of meaning

25. Long Term Memory (LTM) Rehearsal
Rehearsing a piece of information helps to extend the length of time it is retained within the STM.
Rehearsing also facilitates the transfer of information from the STM to the LTM.
Students who stop and repeat what they have just read helps commit the knowledge to their long term memory when compared with students who read continuously.

26. Long Term Memory (LTM) Organisation
Organising information into logical groups or categories makes it more easily transferable into the LTM.
List 1
List 2
cow
jacket
sheep
tin
chicken
cat
iron
trousers
shirt
lead
e.g. List 1 is jumbled, List 2 is organised into logical categories.
Through organisation, the information is more likely to be successfully encoded and transferred to the LTM.

27. Long Term Memory (LTM) Elaboration of Meaning
Elaboration allows us to make information easier to transfer and store in the LTM by building it into a bigger ‘story’.
For example, the name of a person is much more likely to be transferred to the LTM if it is associated with mental images, personality, experiences and smells, such as their perfume/aftershave.

28. Long term memory (LTM)
Information which is stored in the LTM should be able to be retrieved.
To aid retrieval, information is stored in categories e.g. family, holidays, etc.
Retrieval is also aided by ‘contextual cues’, these are signals or reminders relating to the conditions which were present at the time the memory encoded into the LTM.
The more elaborate and detailed the memory, the more easily it is retrieved.

29. many items forgotten “displaced”
Memory Overview
The link between the sensory, short term and long term memory is shown in the diagram below:
Rehearsal
level 1
level 2
level 3
sensory memory
ENCODED
short term memory
(STM)
transferred
long term memory
(LTM)
most sensory images are short-lived and quickly forgotten
many items forgotten “displaced”
Selected info.
some info.
Retrieval

30. Location of Memory in the Brain
Different types of memories are stored in different areas of the brain.
Episodic and semantic memory – ‘remembering that…’
Episodic memory is the recall of personal facts, experience and events.
Semantic memory is the recall of general knowledge, non-personal facts and concepts.
Both episodic and semantic memories are stored in the cerebral cortex such as the temporal lobes at the sides of the cerebrum

31. Location of Memory in the Brain
Procedural memory – ‘remembering how to…’
Procedural memory contains information on how to perform particular skills, such as motor skills (e.g. how to swim) and mental skills (e.g. how to read). These skills are recalled without conscious control.
Procedural memories are stored within the motor region of the cerebral cortex.

32. Location of Memory in the Brain
Emotional memory
Emotional memories are formed as a result of positive or negative associations with particular stimuli.
Emotional memories involve links between the cerebral cortex and limbic system.

33. Location of Memory in the Brain
Spatial memory
Spatial memory holds a record of our environment and its spatial orientation.
i.e. where the fridge is in your kitchen.
Spatial memory is stored within the limbic system.

34. Location of Memory in the Brain
Type of memory
Location within the brain
Episodic and semantic
Cerebral cortex
Procedural
Motor area of the cerebral cortex
Emotional
Cerebral cortex and limbic system
Spatial
Limbic system

35. Questions State what memory and what it includes
Describe how information entering the brain reaches long term memory (LTM).
Describe the features of the sensory memory.
Describe the span of the short term memory (STM).
Explain the serial position effect.
6. Describe how STM can be improved or maintained
7. State the two ways in which information is lost from the STM.
8. Describe the methods which aid transfer of information into the LTM.
9. Define the term ‘encoding’ & describe the different methods of encoding.
10. Describe how contextual cues aid memory retrieval.
11. State the locations of episodic, semantic, procedural, emotional and spatial memories within the brain.

36. Answers State what memory and what it includes
Memory involves storage, retrieval and retention and includes past experience, knowledge and thoughts.
2. Describe how information entering the brain reaches long term memory (LTM).
All information which enters the brain passes through sensory memory and enters the short term memory.
Information can then be transferred to the long term memory (LTM).
3. Describe the features of the sensory memory.
Sensory memory retains all visual and auditory input but for a very short period of time, only 1 or 2 seconds.
4.Describe the span of the short term memory (STM).
It holds about seven items of information for roughly 30 seconds.

37. 5. Explain the serial position effect
5. Explain the serial position effect. When information is viewed in a sequence, the first and last few pieces of information are remembered best.
6.Describe how STM can be improved or maintained
Rehearsal or chunking
7.State the two ways in which information is lost from the STM.
Displacement and Decay
8. Describe the methods which aid transfer of information into the LTM.
Rehearsal, organisation, elaboration of meaning

38. episodic and semantic memories -cerebral cortex.
9.Define the term ‘encoding’ & describe the different methods of encoding.
converted to a form that the brain can process and store
shallow encoding e.g. repetition
elaborative encoding e.g. linking with previous memories
10.Describe how contextual cues aid memory retrieval.
these are signals or reminders relating to the conditions which were present at the time the memory encoded into the LTM.
11.State the locations of episodic, semantic, procedural,
emotional and spatial memories within the brain.
episodic and semantic memories -cerebral cortex.
Procedural memories -motor cortex.
Emotional memories -between the cortex and limbic system.
Spatial memory -the limbic system.

39. a) Memory
Now I can…..
State that memory includes past experiences, knowledge and thoughts.
Describe the process of encoding
Describe the process of memory storage and retrieval of information.
Explain that all information passes though sensory memory and enters the short term memory (STM).
Explain that once information has passed through the short term memory it is either discarded or transferred to the long-term memory (LTM)

40. b) Sensory Memory Now I can…..
Describe that sensory information retains all the visual and auditory input received for a few seconds.
State that following this only selected images and sounds are encoded into short term memory.

41. c) Short-term Memory (STM)
Now I can…..
State that short term memory has a limited capacity
State that short term memory only holds information for a short period of time
Describe “chunking”, memory span, serial position effect, rehearsal, displacement and decay
Explain how the short term memory can perform simple cognitive tasks

42. d) Long-term Memory (STM)
Now I can…..
State that long term memory has an unlimited capacity
State that long term memory can hold information for a long time
Describe how information is transferred from the short term memory to the long term memory by rehearsal, organisation and elaboration
State that retrieval is aided by the use of contextual cues

43. 2018 Q8

44. Word
Definition

45. Suggested activities ?