2. Section 1: Theories of Motivation
Chapter Introduction
Section 1: Theories of Motivation
Section 2: Biological and Social Motives
Section 3: Emotions
Chapter Menu

3. Chapter Objectives · Section 1
Theories of Motivation
Explain motivation and why we experience it in different ways.
Chapter Preview 1

4. Chapter Objectives · Section 2
Biological and Social Motives
Understand that biological needs are physiological requirements we must fulfill to survive, whereas social needs are learned through experience.
Chapter Preview 2

5. Chapter Objectives · Section 3
Emotions
Describe the three parts of emotions—the physical, cognitive, and behavioral aspects.
Chapter Preview 3

6. Chapter Preview-End

7. Main Idea
Psychologists explain motivation and why we experience it in different ways through instinct, drive-reduction, incentive, and cognitive theories of motivation.
Section 1-Main Idea

8. Vocabulary motivation instincts need drive homeostasis incentive
extrinsic motivation
intrinsic motivation
Section 1-Key Terms

9. Objectives Describe four theories of motivation.
Discuss the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Section 1-Objectives

10. Section 1-Polling Question
Which emotion motivates you the most?
A. Fear
B. Love
C. Desire
D. Guilt A B C D
Section 1-Polling Question

11. Theories of Motivation
Psychologists infer motivation from goal-directed behavior.
Section 1

12. Theories of Motivation (cont.)
Theories regarding motivation:
Instinct
Drive-reduction
Incentive
Cognitive
Section 1

13. Which theory do you think best explains motivation? A. Instinct theory
B. Drive-reduction theory
C. Incentive theory
D. Cognitive A B C D
Section 1

14. Instinct Theory
William McDougall proposed that humans were motivated by a variety of instincts.
Instincts are innate tendencies that determine behavior.
William James proposed that humans have instincts such as cleanliness, curiosity, parental love, sociability, and sympathy.
Section 1

15. Instinct Theory (cont.)
However, instincts do not explain behavior; they simply label behavior.
Section 1

16. Which psychologist used the instinct theory to explain motivation?
A. James
B. McDougall
C. Both
D. Neither A B C D
Section 1

17. Drive-Reduction Theory
The thing that motivates us starts with a need that leads to a drive.
Need
Drive
Section 1

18. Drive-Reduction Theory (cont.)
Drive-reduction theory states that physiological needs drive an organism to act in either random or habitual ways.
Biological needs drive an organism to act, and the organism strives to maintain homeostasis.
Section 1

19. Drive-Reduction Theory (cont.)
Clark Hull suggested that all human motives are extensions of basic biological needs.
Harry Harlow and others doubted Hull and proved that other factors, such as pleasure, also play a role.
They conducted experiments using baby monkeys and surrogate mothers.
Section 1

20. Do you think disrupting your homeostasis can be pleasurable? A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure A B C
Section 1

21. Incentive Theory Incentive
People are motivated to obtain positive incentives and to avoid negative incentives.
The cognitive expectations of humans also guide their behavior.
Section 1

22. Which drive motivates you the most? A. Hunger B. Sleep C. Keeping warm
D. Having fun A B C D
Section 1

23. Cognitive Theory
Cognitive psychologists seek to explain motivation by looking at forces inside and outside of us that energize us to move.
According to them, we act in particular ways at particular times as a result of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.
Section 1

24. Cognitive Theory (cont.)
Extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Sometimes we engage in an activity because of both types of motivation.
Overjustification effect: when people are given more extrinsic motivation than necessary to perform a task, their intrinsic motivation declines.
Section 1

25. Do you think saving money for a car is an extrinsic or intrinsic motivation?
A. Extrinsic
B. Intrinsic
C. Both A B C
Section 1

26. Section 1-End

27. Main Idea
Much of life is spent trying to satisfy biological and social needs. Biological needs are physiological requirements that we must fulfill to survive, whereas social needs are those that are learned through experience.
Section 2-Main Idea

28. Vocabulary lateral hypothalamus (LH) ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
fundamental needs
psychological needs
self-actualization needs
Section 2-Key Terms

29. Objectives Describe the biological and social needs of humans.
Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Section 2-Objectives

30. Section 2-Polling Question
Do you think it is important to be successful in school?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure A B C
Section 2-Polling Question

31. Biological Motives
Some behavior is determined by the internal, or physiological, state of the organism.
The nervous system is constructed in such a way that dramatic variations in blood sugar, water, oxygen, salt, or essential vitamins lead to changes in behavior designed to return the body to a condition of chemical balance, or homeostasis.
Some Biological and Social Needs
Section 2

32. Biological Motives (cont.)
Several of the drives that motivate behavior are homeostatic, such as hunger.
Your body requires food to grow, repair itself, and to store reserves.
Section 2

33. Biological Motives (cont.)
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
The glucostatic theory—the hypothalamus monitors the amount of glucose, or ready energy, available in the blood.
Set-point—the weight around which your day-to-day weight tends to fluctuate.
Section 2

34. Biological Motives (cont.)
The hypothalamus interprets at least three kinds of information:
The amount of glucose entering the cells of your body.
Your set-point.
Your body temperature.
Section 2

35. Biological Motives (cont.)
Other factors tied to hunger:
Psychosocial hunger factors—external cues that can affect eating, such as where, when, and what we eat.
Obesity—a genetic component may predispose some people to obesity.
Percentage of Overweight Americans
Section 2

36. Biological Motives (cont.)
Stanley Schachter and his colleagues conducted studies to prove that overweight people respond to external cues, while normal-weight people respond to internal cures.
Section 2

37. Do you feel that you only eat when you are hungry, or that you are also affected by external cues?
A. Internal cues
B. External cues
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above A B C D
Section 2

38. Social Motives
Social motives are learned from our interactions with other people.
The achievement motive concerns the desire to set challenging goals and to persist in trying to reach those goals despite obstacles, frustrations, and set-backs.
Section 2

39. Social Motives (cont.)
David McClelland measured achievement motivation using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
83% of the entrepreneurs scored high in achievement, but only 21% of the nonentrepreneurs scored that high.
Section 2

40. Social Motives (cont.)
Other people are motivated by a fear of failure.
People display this fear when they choose easy tasks offering assured success or impossible tasks with no chance of success.
They often find excuses to explain their poor performance.
Section 2

41. Social Motives (cont.) Some people also have a fear of success.
Matina Horner conducted a study showing that success involves deep conflicts for some people.
Although, it is very difficult to define success or to tell whether a person who does not try something is afraid of success or failure.
Section 2

42. Social Motives (cont.) Other theories:
J.W. Atkinson developed an expectancy-value theory to explain goal-directed behavior.
Competency theory—too easy a task or too difficult a task means we do not learn anything about how competent we are.
Your Performance
Section 2

43. Social Motives (cont.)
Abraham Maslow believed that all human beings need to feel competent to win approval and recognition, and to sense that they have achieved something.
He believed that some needs take precedence over others and that achieving one level of satisfaction releases new needs and motivations.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Section 2

44. Social Motives (cont.)
Maslow placed achievement motivation in the context of a hierarchy of needs:
Physiological needs (a fundamental need)
Safety needs (a fundamental need)
Belongingness and love needs (a psychological need)
Esteem needs (a psychological need)
The need to fulfill one’s potential (a self-actualization need)
Section 2

45. C. Belongingness and love needs D. Esteem needs A B C D
Achieving goals, feeling competent, and gaining approval and recognition would all under which need in Maslow’s hierarchy?
A. Physiological needs
B. Safety needs
C. Belongingness and love needs
D. Esteem needs A B C D
Section 2

46. Section 2-End

47. Main Idea
All emotions consist of three parts—the physical, cognitive, and behavioral aspects. Theories of emotion propose that emotions result from physical changes and/or mental processes.
Section 3-Main Idea

48. Vocabulary
emotion
Section 3-Key Terms

49. Objectives Give examples of the physiological theories of emotion.
Explain the cognitive theorists’ approach to the study of emotion.
Section 3-Objectives

50. Section 3-Polling Question
Do you consider yourself to be an emotional person?
A. Very much so
B. Somewhat
C. Not very much so
D. Not at all A B C D
Section 3-Polling Question

51. Emotions
We use the words drive or motivation to emphasize the needs, desires, and mental calculations that lead to goal-directed behavior.
We use the words emotion or affect to stress the feelings associated with these decisions and activities.
Section 3

52. Emotions (cont.)
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions and to use that information in decision making.
Section 3

53. What is the ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions?
A. Emotional intelligence
B. Drive
C. Motivation
D. Affect A B C D
Section 3

54. Expressing Emotions
Emotion
The Range of Emotions
Section 3

55. Expressing Emotions (cont.)
Emotions result from four occurrences:
You must interpret some stimulus.
You have a subjective feeling, such as fear or happiness.
You experience physiological responses, such as an increased heart rate.
You display observable behavior, such as smiling or crying.
Section 3

56. Expressing Emotions (cont.)
All emotions have three parts:
The physical—how the emotion affects the physical arousal of an individual.
The behavioral—outward expression of the emotion, such as body language, hand gestures, and tone of voice.
The cognitive—how we think about or interpret a situation, which affects our emotions.
Paul Ekman
Section 3

57. Expressing Emotions (cont.)
Numerous studies have shown that certain basic facial expressions are innate—or part of our biological inheritance.
Learning is also an important factor in emotional expression.
James Averill believes that many of our everyday emotional reactions are the result of social expectations and consequences.
Threatening Elements
Section 3

58. Expressing Emotions (cont.)
Theories of emotions:
The James-Lange Theory
Facial Feedback Theory
The Cannon-Bard Theory
The Schachter-Singer Experiment
Opponent-Process Theory
Theories of Emotion
Fear and Relief
Section 3

59. In which theory does your experience activate the hypothalamus first?
A. James-Lang
B. Facial Feedback
C. Cannon-Bard
D. Schachter-Singer A B C D
Section 3

60. Section 3-End

61. Some Biological and Social Needs
Whereas biological needs are physiological requirements critical to our survival, we acquire social needs through experience and learning.
Figure 1

62. Percentage of Overweight Americans
Overweight people face increased risk for heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, clogged arteries, adult onset diabetes, and early death.
Figure 2

63. Your Performance
The Yerkes-Dodson law says that your performance on a task is an interaction between the level of physiological arousal and the difficulty of the task. So on difficult tasks, you do better if your arousal level is low.
Figure 3

64. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
According to Maslow, only after satisfying the lower level of needs is a person free to progress to the ultimate need of self-actualization.
Figure 4

65. The Range of Emotions
Emotions are subjective feelings, so psychologists cannot agree on how many emotions exist or the exact impact of a specific emotion.
Figure 5

66. Threatening Elements
When people from various cultures were asked to identify the threatening shapes in each pair, they consistently selected the triangular and diagonal elements.
Figure 6

67. Theories of Emotion
These theories of emotion differ depending on the relationship of physiological change and cognitive interpretation of emotion.
Figure 7

68. Fear and Relief
According to the opponent-process theory, when the stimulus for one emotion is removed, you feel the opposite emotion.
Figure 8

69. Paul Ekman 1934–
“The face is the primary site for the display of emotions. Together with the voice, it may tell the listener how the speaker feels about what is being said. . .”
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76. motivation: an internal state that activates behavior and directs it toward a goal
Vocab1

77. instincts: innate tendencies that determine behavior
Vocab2

78. need: biological or psychological requirement of an organism
Vocab3

79. drive: a state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism toward a goal
Vocab4

80. homeostasis: the tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state
Vocab5

81. incentive: an external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior
Vocab6

82. extrinsic motivation: engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives
Vocab7

83. intrinsic motivation: engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations
Vocab8

84. lateral hypothalamus (LH): the part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals
Vocab9

85. ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): the part of the hypothalamus that can cause one to stop eating
Vocab10

86. fundamental needs: biological drives that must be satisfied to maintain life
Vocab11

87. psychological needs: the urge to belong and to give and receive love, and the urge to acquire esteem
Vocab12

88. self-actualization needs: the pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever else is required for the realization of one’s unique potential
Vocab13

89. emotion: a set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and observable behavior
Vocab14

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