1. The topics
Topics are an aid to invention; ways to persuade an audience
Topics include subjects to speak/write about OR ways to put together an argument

2. Topics = what to write about
*The Common Topics - provide students with many different lines of argument that can be used in the development of any subject
*The Special Topics - include specific types of discourse, including forensic or deliberative
*External (research) - you should know all about research!

3. Division...

4. Division
lists the parts that make something up in an effort to define it
think of it as a simple list that elaborates on the parts of the discourse
when arguing, this can be used to establish the grounds for an argument by elimination: one provides alternatives, then eliminates each on to arrive at the conclusion you want.
EX: A person might steal for any of these reasons: A, B, C, D... We have already established that A and B could not have been my client's motives...Furthermore...

5. Comparison

6. Comparison
holding up two or more things to examine them for their relationships or differences
similarity - the likeness of two or more things (p. 228 MLK-para 25)
analogy - uses the similarities of similar topics (i.e. if homosexuality is a sin, so is promiscuity); an analogy argues that if two things are alike in one or two characteristics, they are probably alike in another characteristic (p. 179 Burke-para 19)

7. Difference

8. DIFFERENCE contrasts two or more things
used to gather arguments for confirmation or refutation
(p. 175 Burke-para 3)

9. Degree

10. Degree differences in degree deal with more or less turn to p. 101
Can you think of an example of #3, 4, and 5?

11. Cause & Effect

12. Cause and Effect
An effect can have a number of possible causes. To find the cause that works, follow this progression of thought:
The cause we assign for an effect must be capable of producing the effect (i.e. if there is a puddle on the kitchen floor, we wonder what caused that effect...a leaky fridge, a messy toddler, the puppy?
Once we think we have found a sufficient cause for something, we must decide whether there might be other causes (i.e. the toddler loves to pour his own juice, but the puppy hasn't been potty trained yet...)

13. Cause and Effect
Consider whether the potential causes could exist (if the toddler is at grandma's house, she is ruled out as a suspect)
Consider whether the supposed cause would consistently produce an effect and whether it would without a doubt produce the same effect (i.e. does the puppy always make messes on the floor, or is he getting better at waiting to go outside?)
Post hoc ergo propter hoc ("after this, therefore because of this") This supposes that when two events occur near to each other in time, one has an effect on the other (i.e. if the puppy walks through the room, there will always be a mess in that room)

14. In Rhetoric, we can argue from an effect back to a cause, or we can start with a cause and argue that it will produce a particular effect

15. Contradictions
A thing cannot at the same time and in the same respect be and not be.
For example, Either God exists or He doesn't.

16. Circumstance - The possible and the impossible
How can one prove that something is possible or impossible?
One potential way is to convince someone that others have succeeded in doing similar things, OR that what is proposed is not at all possible.
Can you think of an example?
Turn to page see list of possible/impossible topics

17. Past Fact and Future Fact
Deals with whether or not something has happened, and whether or not something would happen
Ex. See "Letter from Birmingham Jail" p para. 44

18. Past Fact
"If the less probable of two events has occurred, the more probable event is likely to have occurred, too."
"If someone had the power and the desire and the opportunity to do something, then he or she has done it."

19. Future Fact
"If the power and the desire to do something are present, then that something will be done."
"If the antecedents of something are present, then the natural consequences will occur."
"If the means are available, the end will be accomplished."

20. Testimony derives material from outside
sword drill - find an example of testimony in MLK's LBJ (hint: there are 2)

21. Authority informed opinion by someone in control
has great persuasive force, but does not carry as much weight today as in the past
Ex. A psychiatrist would have more authority when testifying about emotional side effects of abuse than an ordinary citizen.
Can you think of another example?

22. Testimonials Used in Aristotle's time, and equally effective today
personal recommendation, advertising, opinion poll, best- seller list, audience rating, etc.
Can you think of a product or service you bought/used based on a testimonial from someone else?

23. Statistics Used to confirm statements Often gathered via polls
How credible is a poll? What might jeopardize the value of a poll?

24. And...the final 3 topics...

25. Maxims precepts, proverbs or famous sayings
"The early bird catches the worm"
"Don't judge a book by its cover"

26. Laws
statutes, contracts, testaments, records, and documents used to substantiate or refute a claim
documents are hard to refute, so they provide excellent, convincing proof
MLK used this in LBJ....do you remember?

27. Precedent Something that has happened before
Precedents bring to bear on a present case what has been done in a similar case in the past
Can you think of an example?
How can this jeopardize the case for Hobby Lobby?