1. Chapter 8: Thinking, Language & Intelligence
Cognition – the mental activities of acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge
Cognitive Psychology – Seeks to study how people think, problem solve, make decisions, communicate, understand concepts and access memory

2. Components of Thinking - Concepts
Definition: A mental grouping of similar objects, people, events, etc.
Function: Help us to order our world into categories and communicate with fewer words
Artificial Concepts: created from logical rules or definitions like “triangle”
Natural Concepts/Prototypes: Our best/most typical ex. of a concept
Ex: concept: dog prototype: your Poodle (the image that pops into
your head when you think of “dog”)
Hierarchies: Some of our concepts develop when we create hierarchies…categories and subcategories

3. Components of Thinking - Problem Solving
Trial and Error: Trying one solution after another in no particular order
Ex: Thomas Edison – light bulb
Means-End Analysis: Given a current state and a goal state, an action is chosen to reduce the difference between the two. Ex: Used often in computer programming and artificial intelligence
Insights: Sometimes answer just comes to us out of nowhere when we are not focusing hard on it
Ex: Coming up with a jumbled word ITIGKHNN

4. Components of Thinking - Problem Solving
Algorithm: A systematic procedure that guarantees a solution, although it may take longer than a Heuristic approach.
-Like a recipe to solve something x 4 =
Heuristics: Using a rule of thumb strategy to problem solve and make decisions.
-Often comes from our past experiences and personal judgments.
-Usually quicker, but more error-prone, than algorithms.
-Sometimes called “mental shortcuts”
Ex: If you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture.
If you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you can derive from that ("working backward").
If the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example.

5. Decision Making
Definition: The process of choosing among a number of alternatives
Representativeness Heuristic – When we make a decision based on how much a new situation or object resembles our old prototypes
(Ex: tall man NBA player not bank president) (Ex: truck driver vs. Ivy League professor)
Availability Heuristic – When we base a decision on what we have most available in our memory. Things that come to mind are presumed to be more common.
(Ex: letter “k”…more frequent 1st or 3rd letter)
(Ex: casino noises)
Comparison – When we measure the value of two alternatives by comparing them on a point-by-point basis

6. Errors Made in Problem Solving
Functional Fixedness: Inability to use familiar objects in new ways
Ex: Need a flashlight? Use your cell phone.
Ex: Someone who does not show functional fixedness is a robber who uses women’s hosiery placed over his head to distort his facial features 
Mental Set: When people continue to use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past rather than trying new ones
Irrelevant Information: When someone becomes fixed on information given in the problem that does not impact the solution
Unnecessary Constraints: The inability to solve a problem because we place constraints on the solution that really don’t exist

7. Faulty Decision Making
Confirmation Bias – A tendency to seek out information that confirms our previously held beliefs
Belief Perseverance – The tendency to hold onto our belief even in the face of evidence against our belief…our beliefs distort our logic
Overconfidence – The tendency to count on our own estimates and beliefs too much
Framing Decisions – The way we are presented the information needed for making the decision can impact what we decide Ex: coat for $100 or same coat for $150 at 33% off

8. Visualize Yourself Studying
The effects of mental practice on skilled motor performance.
Many athletes mentally ski their slalom course, make their free throws, or execute their gymnastic routine. Might there also be payoffs to mentally simulating successful academic performance?
In 1998 UCLA researchers explored the surprising benefits derived by mentally simulating how one might achieve a goal.
Study: Engaged intro psych students who would be taking a midterm exam in five to seven days.
One group ½ told to imagine a positive outcome (visualizing themselves scanning the posted grade list, seeing their A, beaming with joy, feeling confident, feeling proud) and to repeat this "outcome simulation" for five minutes each day before the exam. ½ were controls and did nothing differently ***This had little effect, adding only two points to exam scores compared to control subjects not engaged in mental simulation.
Second group ½ instructed to imagine themselves studying in a way that would lead to an A (visualizing themselves studying the chapters, going over notes, eliminating distractions, declining an offer to go out). Were also told to repeat this "process simulation" for five minutes each day. ½ were controls and did nothing differently ***Compared to the control students, these students began studying earlier, spent more hours studying, and beat the control group exam average by nearly eight points.
Based on this and other experiments, they conclude that it is better to spend your fantasy time planning how to get there than it is to dwell on the destination.

9. English is difficult! A farm can produce produce.
The dump was so full it had to refuse refuse.
The soldier decided to desert his dessert in the desert.
The present is a good time to present the present.
At the Army base, a bass was painted on the head of a bass drum.
The dove dove into the bushes.
I did not object to the object.
The insurance for the invalid was invalid.
The bandage was wound around the wound.
They were too close to the door to close it.

10. Language
Definition: Symbolism used to communicate ideas & concepts & to problem solve
All Language shares 3 things in common
Semanticity: True language conveys thoughts in a meaningful way by use of symbols and sounds
Generativity: Ability to combine words in new ways
Displacement: Ability to talk about objects that are not present

11. Wernicke’s Area understand speech
Language and the Brain
As a child grows, his/her language develops. Usually, understanding language occurs before the production of language.
Wernicke’s Area understand speech
Broca’s Area
produce speech

12. Language Development (Year One)
Infant – Crying
4 to 6 months – Babbling
(sounds present in all languages)
9 months – Finite babbling
(narrow to sounds reflected back to them)
1 year – One-word stage
Overextension: Applying a word to a wide variety of similar items (Ex: using “horse” to refer to any four-legged animal)
Underextension: Using a word to define only one object as though it were a proper name (Ex: using “bird” to refer to only the child’s pet and not to wild birds in the yard or other winged creatures)
Overgeneralization- Misuse of rules “goed” “sheeps”
Holophrasic Speech: Using one word to mean an entire sentence (Ex: “shoe” means “Will you tie my shoe?”)
Infant
Babbling-produces sounds that belong to all languages
Finite Babbling-narrow sounds to those reflected back to them
1 year-overextension-applying a word to a wide variety of similar items (ie: doggy to mean horse, cat, cow)
Underextension-treating a word to belong to only one item like a name-(bird only applies to their pet-not to wild birds in the yard)
Holophrasic speech-one word is used as a sentence
18-24 months-telegraphic speech-send money
2 years-my birthday is tomorrow

13. Language Development (Past 1st Year)
18-24 months – Two-word stage
2 years old – Capable of relating past and present
3 years old – Uses simple sentence structure and can tell a simple story
4 years old – Five-word sentences are characteristic of this age group
5 years old – Capable of complex syntax

14. Parts of Language
Phonemes: Smallest unit of sound that can be understood as part of a language (40 in English) - Ex: The m of mat, the b of boy, or the ch in church
Morphemes: Smallest unit of sound that conveys a meaning in a language. Can be individual or combinations of phonemes
- Ex: Unit consisting of a word, such as man - Ex: A word element, such as -ed in walked - Ex: Phoneme such as I ** cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts**
Grammar: Set of rules that enables us to use our language
Semantics – Refers to aspects of meaning assigned to language (Ex: adding “ed” means it happened in the past)
Syntax – The system of rules we use to string words together into proper sentences (Ex: adjectives come before nouns)
Phonemes-basic sounds “b”, “c”, sh, ch,
Morphemes-can be individual or combinations of phonemes-smallest unit of speech that carries meaning (I, cat, pre, ed)
Grammar-a set of rules that enables us to use our language

15. Pic: Units of Language

16. Theories of Language Acquisition
Skinner – Learned through association, reinforcement and social imitation
Chomsky – Believed that language acquisition is innate from his observations that children create sentences they have never heard before and learning is too rapid to be explained solely by learning principles
*Possibly a combination of the two

17. Language Acquisition as we get older…

18. Thinking and Language Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Definition: Word order and word choice can affect our thinking “Language itself shapes man’s basic ideas”
Examples
Hopi have no past tense, so they do not readily think about the past
English has many words for self-focused emotions such as anger
Japanese have many words for interpersonal emotions such as sympathy
Bilinguals may show different personalities when taking the same personality test in their two languages

19. English is difficult!
There is no egg in eggplant nor ham in hamburger; neither apple nor pine in pineapple. English muffins weren't invented in England. Quicksand works slowly, boxing rings are square and a guinea pig is neither from Guinea nor is it a pig.
If you have a bunch of odds & ends and get rid of all but one, what do you call it? If teachers taught, why didn't preachers praught? If a vegetarian eats vegetables, what does a humanitarian eat? Why do people recite at a play and play at a recital?  Ship by truck and send cargo by ship?  Have noses that run and feet that smell? How can a slim chance and a fat chance be the same, while a wise man and a wise guy are opposites?
You have to marvel at the unique lunacy of a language in which your house can burn up as it burns down, in which you fill in a form by filling it out and in which an alarm goes off by going on. If Dad is Pop, how come mom isn't Mop?  

20. Intelligence Debate
Nature to the left of me, nurture to the right.

21. History of Intelligence Testing
Galton
Believed that intelligence was related to visual acuity and reaction time
Binet
French Government
Mental age
Fear test would be abused

22. History of Intelligence Testing
Terman (Stanford-Binet Scale)
revised the Binet scale
created the term IQ
“IQ” determined by taking: MA/CA x 100
Extended the test to also assess IQ in adults
The normal distribution of intelligence scores
Wechsler
Developed a more accurate test for adults
First to use standard deviation, bell curve
Examples of some of the test developed by Wechsler include
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

23. WAIS Subtests

24. Extremes of Intelligence
Mental Retardation
mild (IQ scores of 50-70)
These individuals can obtain about a sixth grade education
They usually live in a supervised community
85% of those classified as retarded
moderate- (IQ scores of 35-50)
These individuals can obtain about a second grade education
Need very supervised work conditions
About 10%
severe (IQ 20-35)
Regular supervision due to communication and physical issues.
About 4% of the mentally retarded population fall into this category
profound (IQ below 20)
These individuals have very little sensorimotor capability and will always require supervision
Gifted generally considered an IQ of 135 or exceptional skill in a category

26. Kinds of Intelligence Spearman - “g” and “s” “g”-general intelligence
“s”-specific abilities

27. Kinds of Intelligence Gardner - Theory of Multiple Intelligences
He believed that intelligence could be broken down into seven categories:

28. Kinds of Intelligence Sternberg - Triarchic Theory
He believed that intelligence could be broken down into three categories
creative intelligence-ability to solve problems with novel solutions
practical intelligence-”common sense”
analytical intelligence-ability to analyze a problem into its integral components

29. Kinds of Intelligence Raymond Cattell
Fluid Intelligence: innate, inherited intelligence including reasoning and problem solving abilities, memory, and speed of info-processing
- relatively independent of education
- tend to decline with age
Crystallized Intelligence: specific knowledge and skills gained through experience & education - tend to increase over life span

30. Types & Characteristics of Tests
Aptitude: person’s capability
Achievement: person’s knowledge of subject
Characteristics
Validity: the ability of the test to measure what you say it will measure
Reliability: the ability of the test to measure a construct with consistency
Standardization: the use of reference scores for interpreting an individual’s performance

31. Types of Validity & Reliability of Tests
Content: Complete range of material
Criterion: Compare to other tests of the same measure (high on SAT, high on ACT)
Predictive: future performance (MCAT)
Construct: theoretical or hypothetical construct (depression, intelligence)
Reliability
Test-retest:
Alternate form:
Inter-rater: