1. Nuclear Chemistry

2. DANGERS OF NUCLEAR POWER

3. Radioactivity
One of the pieces of evidence for the fact that atoms are made of smaller particles came from the work of Marie Curie ( ).
She discovered radioactivity, the spontaneous disintegration of some elements into smaller pieces.

4. Stability of Nuclei Out of > 300 stable isotopes: N Even Odd Z 15752
3115P
Even
Odd 50 5
21H, 63Li, 105B, 147N, 18073Ta
199F

5. Band of Stability and Radioactive Decay

6. Nuclear Reactions vs. Normal Chemical Changes
Nuclear reactions involve the nucleus
The nucleus decays while protons and neutrons are rearranged
The opening of the nucleus releases a tremendous amount of energy that holds the nucleus together – called binding energy
“Normal” Chemical Reactions involve electrons, not protons and neutrons

7. Mass Defect Some of the mass can be converted into energy
Shown by a very famous equation!
E=mc2
Energy
Mass
Speed of light

8. Dm = [Z(mp + me) + (A-Z)mn] – m atom
Dm = mass defect (amu)
mp = mass of a proton   ( amu)
mn = mass of a neutron ( amu)
me = mass of an electron   ( amu)
Matom = mass of nuclide AZ  X (amu)
Z = atomic number (number of protons)
A = mass number (number of nucleons)

9. PROBLEM:
Find the mass defect and binding energy for a nucleus of Helium-4
Given:
Dm = [Z(mp + me) + (A-Z)mn] – m atom
Dm = mass defect (amu)
mp = mass of a proton ( amu)
mn = mass of a neutron ( amu)
me = mass of an electron ( amu)
Matom = mass of nuclide AZ  X (amu)
Z = atomic number (number of protons)
A = mass number (number of nucleons)
Solution:

10. Types of Radiation Beta (β) – an electron
Alpha (ά) – a positively charged helium isotope - we usually ignore the charge because it involves electrons, not protons and neutrons
Beta (β) – an electron
Gamma (γ) – pure energy; called a ray rather than a particle

11. Other Nuclear Particles
Neutron
Positron – a positive electron
Proton – usually referred to as hydrogen-1
Any other elemental isotope

12. Penetrating Ability

13. Balancing Nuclear Reactions
In the reactants (starting materials – on the left side of an equation) and products (final products – on the right side of an equation)
Atomic numbers must balance
and
Mass numbers must balance
Use a particle or isotope to fill in the missing protons and neutrons

14. Nuclear Reactions Alpha emission
Note that mass number (A) goes down by 4 and atomic number (Z) goes down by 2.
Nucleons (nuclear particles… protons and neutrons) are rearranged but conserved

15. Nuclear Reactions Beta emission
Note that mass number (A) is unchanged and atomic number (Z) goes up by 1.

16. Other Types of Nuclear Reactions
Positron ( 0+1b): a positive electron
207
Electron capture: the capture of an electron

17. Learning Check
What radioactive isotope is produced in the following bombardment of boron?
10B He ? n

18. Write Nuclear Equations!
Write the nuclear equation for the beta emitter Co-60.

20. Half-Life
HALF-LIFE is the time that it takes for 1/2 a sample to decompose.
The rate of a nuclear transformation depends only on the “reactant” concentration.

21. Where is the original amount of material present.
Where N is the final amount of material.
Where is the original amount of material present.
is the time in the same units as the half-life.
is the half-life.

22. Half-Life
Decay of 20.0 mg of 15O. What remains after 3 half-lives? After 5 half-lives?

23. Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
For each duration (half-life), one half of the substance decomposes.
For example: Ra-234 has a half-life of 3.6 days If you start with 50 grams of Ra-234
After 3.6 days > 25 grams
After 7.2 days > 12.5 grams
After 10.8 days > 6.25 grams

24. Learning Check!
The half life of I-123 is 13 hr. How much of a 64 mg sample of I-123 is left after 39 hours?

25. Artificial Nuclear Reactions
New elements or new isotopes of known elements are produced by bombarding an atom with a subatomic particle such as a proton or neutron -- or even a much heavier particle such as 4He and 11B.
Reactions using neutrons are called g reactions because a gamma ray is usually emitted.
Radioisotopes used in medicine are often made by gamma reactions.

26. Artificial Nuclear Reactions
Example of a g reaction is production of radioactive 31P for use in studies of phosphorus uptake in the body.
3115P n ---> 3215P + g

27. Transuranium Elements
Elements beyond 92 (transuranium) made starting with a gamma reaction
23892U n ---> U + g
23992U > Np b
23993Np ---> Pu b

28. Nuclear Fission

29. Fission is the splitting of atoms
Nuclear Fission
Fission is the splitting of atoms
These atoms are usually very large, so that they are not as stable.
Fission chain has three general steps:
1. Initiation. Reaction of a single atom starts the chain (e.g., 235U + neutron)
2. Propagation. 236U fission releases neutrons that initiate other fissions
3. Termination.

30. Representation of a fission process.

31. Nuclear Fission & POWER
Currently about 104 nuclear power plants in the U.S. and about 440 worldwide.
14% of the world’s energy comes from nuclear power.

32. Diagram of a nuclear power plant.

33. Fuel rods are usually composed of fissionable isotopes such as 235U, 233U and 239Pu.
Control rods have pellets inside that are made of very efficient neutron capturers. These neutron capturing materials have the ability to stop nuclear fission. An example of such a material is cadmium.

34. The moderator serves to slow down the high speed neutrons "flying" all around the reactor core. If a neutron is moving too fast it passes right through the U-235 nucleus. It must be slowed down to be captured by the nucleus and to induce fission. The most common moderator is water, but sometimes it can be another material such as graphite.
The coolant absorbs heat from the reaction. The most common coolant used in nuclear power plants today is water. This heated water does not boil because it is kept at an extremely intense pressure, thus raising its boiling point above the normal 100° Celsius.

35. Fusion Nuclear Fusion small nuclei combine 2H + 3H 4He + 1n + 1 1 2 0
Occurs in the sun and other stars
Energy

36. Nuclear Fusion
Fusion
Excessive heat can not be contained
Attempts at “cold” fusion have FAILED.
“Hot” fusion is difficult to contain

37. Effects of Radiation

38. Geiger Counter
Used to detect radioactive substances

40. Radiocarbon Dating
Radioactive C-14 is formed in the upper atmosphere by nuclear reactions initiated by neutrons in cosmic radiation
14N + 1on ---> 14C + 1H
The C-14 is oxidized to CO2, which circulates through the biosphere.
When a plant dies, the C-14 is not replenished.
But the C-14 continues to decay with t1/2 = 5730 years.
Activity of a sample can be used to date the sample.

41. Nuclear Medicine: Imaging
Thyroid imaging using I-123

42. Technetium-99 is used to detect brain tumors.
Barium-137 is used to image gastrointestinal irregularities
Radium-226 and Cobalt-60 are used for radiation therapy in cancer patients.
Uranium-238 is used to date rocks.

43. Food Irradiation
Food can be irradiated with g rays from 60Co or 137Cs.
Irradiated milk has a shelf life of 3 mo. without refrigeration.
USDA has approved irradiation of meats and eggs.