1. Amino acids and proteins

2. Characteristics of proteins:
Are substance of high molecular weight.
All protein Contain C, H, O, N, and most contain sulfur, some contain phosphorus and a few have mineral elements such as Fe, Mg and Cu.
Serve as structural components of animals.
Proteins are polymers consisting of 20 kinds of amino acids.

3. Protein Functions
Structure some proteins provide structural support: collagen, hair, crystallins (eyes)
Transport some proteins are responsible for the transportation of smaller molecules from one part of the body to another, transport across cell membranes, etc. An example is hemoglobin, which transports oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body.
Catalysis Enzymes catalyze the chemical reactions that allow cells to function.

4. Storage Myoglobin is an example of a storage protein
Storage Myoglobin is an example of a storage protein. Myoglobin stores oxygen in muscles so that during exercise a ready supply of oxygen is available in the muscle tissue.
Hormones Some hormones are proteins; insulin is an example. Hormones serve as chemical messengers, carrying signals from one part of the body to another.

5. Amine group acts like a base, tends to be positive.
Carboxyl group acts like an acid, tends to be negative.
“R” group is variable, from 1 atom to 20.
Two amino acids join together to form a dipeptide.
Adjacent carboxyl and amino groups bond together.

6. Precipitation of Proteins at isoelectric Point
Protein solubility:
The solubility of proteins in aqueous buffers depends on the distribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acid residues on the protein’s surface.
Proteins that have high hydrophobic amino acid content on the surface have low solubility in an aqueous solvent.
Charged and polar surface residues interact with ionic groups in the solvent and increase solubility.
Hydrophilic amino acid like (Arginine, Asparagine, Aspartate, Glutamine, Glutamate, Histidine, Lysine, Serine and Threonine)
hydrophobic amino acid (Valine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan, Proline, Phenylalanine, Methionine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Cysteine and Alanine )

7. B. Isoelectric point precipitation
Isoelectric point (pI): is the pH-value of a solution at which the total net charge of a protein equals zero.
At a solution pH that is above the pI the surface of the protein is predominantly negatively charged and therefore like-charged molecules will exhibit repulsive forces.
Likewise the surface of the protein is predominantly positively charged at a solution pH that is below the pI, and repulsion between proteins occurs.
However, at the pI the negative and positive charges are eliminated, repulsive electrostatic forces are reduced and the dispersive forces predominate.
Repulsive electrostatic forces form when proteins are dissolved in an electrolyte solution. These repulsive forces between proteins prevent aggregation and facilitate dissolution.

8. The dispersive forces will cause aggregation and precipitation.
The pI of most proteins ranges between the pH 4 to 6.
When microorganisms grow in milk, they often produce acids and lower the pH of the milk.
The phenomenon of precipitation or coagulation of milk protein (casein) at low pH as milk becomes spoiled is one of the common examples of protein isolation due to changes in the pH.

9. Principle
Using acetate buffer of different PH values to find the isoelectric point of casein
Can be obtained by determining the PH where minimum solubility.
The PH of any solution can be calculated from Handersonhasselbalch equation.

10. Procedure Into a 50 ml volumetric flask add 20 ml of water.
Add 0.25 g of pure casein, followed by the addition of 5 ml of 1 N NaOH solution.
Once casein is dissolved, add 5 ml of 1 N acetic acid solution, then dilute with H2O to 50 ml and mix well. The resulted solution is a 0.1 N casein acetate sodium.

11. Setup a series of 9 test tubes.
In the first test tube put 3.2 ml 1 N CH3COOH, and 6.8 ml H2O and mix thoroughly.
In each of the other test tubes (2-9) put 5 ml H2Od.
From the test tube 1 transfer 5 ml to the test tube 2, and mix thoroughly.
Repeat step 7 for the rest of test tubes (3 - 9).

12. Now to each test tube (1 -9) add 1 ml of the casein acetate sodium solution, and shake the test tubes immediately.
Let the samples stand for 30 min, and note the turbidity in the 9 test tubes.
Use) +( and )– (signs to describe the turbidity in the different test tubes.
You should observe the most precipitation in the test tube which has the pH around 4.7 (close to the isoelectric point of casein).

13. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
TUBE
0.006
0.012
0.025
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.8
1.6
IN CH3COOH
5.9
5.6
5.3
5.0
4.7
4.4
4.1
3.8
3.5 PH
TURBI-DITY

14. Isolation of Casein from Milk
Milk is a food of exceptional interest not only is milk an excellent food for the very young, but humans have also adapted milk, specifically cow’s milk, as a food substance for persons of all ages.
Many specialized milk products like cheese, butter, and ice cream are staples of our diet.
Milk is probably the most nutritionally-complete food that can be found in nature. This property is important for milk, since it is the only food young mammals consume in the nutritionally significant weeks following birth.

15. Milk Composition Milk composition Lipids Proteins Vitamins Minerals
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals
Water

16. There are three kinds of proteins in milk: caseins, lactalbumins,
Whole milk contains vitamins (Thiamine, Riboflavin, and vitamins A, D, and K), minerals (calcium, potassium, sodium, phosphorus, and trace metals), proteins (which include all the essential amino acids), carbohydrates (chiefly lactose), and lipids.
The only important elements in which milk is seriously deficient are iron and Vitamin C.
Infants are usually born with a storage supply of iron large enough to meet their needs for several weeks. Vitamin C is easily secured through an orange juice supplement.
There are three kinds of proteins in milk:
caseins,
lactalbumins,
lactoglobulins. All are globular.
Thiamine or thiamin or vitamin B1: a water-soluble vitamin of the B complex. All living organisms use thiamine in their biochemistry, but it is synthesized in bacteria, fungi, and plants. Animals must obtain it from their diet, and, thus, for them it is a vitamin. Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2.
Vitamin K is a group of fat soluble vitamins that are needed for the posttranslational modification of certain proteins, mostly required for blood coagulation but also involved in metabolism pathways in bone and other tissue.
The essential amino acids are arginine (required for the young, but not for adults), histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.

17. Cow
Human
Goat
Sheep
Horse
Water
87.1
87.4
87.0
82.6
90.6
Proteins
3.4
1.4
3.3
5.5
2.0
Fats
3.9
4.0
4.2
6.5
1.1
Carboh-ydrates
4.9
7.0
4.5
5.9
Minerals
0.7
0.2
0.9
0.4

18. Casein
Is a phosphoprotein, which has phosphate groups attached to some of the amino acid side chains.
casein is a mixture of at least three similar proteins, which differ primarily in molecular weight and amount of phosphorus they contain (number of phosphate groups).
Casein exists in milk as the calcium salt, calcium caseinate, this salt has a complex structure.
It is composed of α, β, and κ caseins which form a micelle, or a solubilized unit.

19. α-Caseins are the major casein proteins
α-Caseins are the major casein proteins. Its containing phosphate groups,
β- casein contains about 5 phosphate residues,
β- casein it is more hydrophobic than α-caseins and κ-casein
Because α-caseins and β-caseins are highly phosphorylated, they are very sensitive to the concentration of calcium salts, that is, they will precipitate with excess Ca2+ ions

20. Unlike other caseins, κ-caseins are glycoproteins, and they have only 2 phosphate group.
Hence, they are stable in the presence of calcium ions, and they play an important role in protecting other caseins from precipitation and make casein more soluble forming casein micelles.
Neither the α nor the β casein is soluble in milk, singly or in combination.
If κ casein is added to either one, or to a combination of the two, however, the result is a casein complex that is soluble owing to the formation of the micelle

21. Casein can be precipitated by:
Calcium ions
HCl
Renin

22. Procedure
Place 20 ml (20 g) of milk into a 125 ml flask and heat at 40 oC in a water bath.
Add 5 drops of glacial acetic acid and stir for about 1 min.
Filter the resulting mixture through 4 layers of cheesecloth held in a funnel and gently squeeze out most of liquid.
Remove the solid (casein and fat) from the cheesecloth, place it into a 100 ml beaker and add 10 ml of 95% ethanol.
Stir well to break up the product. Pour off the liquid and add 10 ml of 1:1 ether-ethanol mixture to the solid.

23. % Casein = (grams of casein \ grams of milk) x 100
Stir well and filter through 4 layers of cheesecloth.
Let the solid drain well, then scrape it into a weighed filter paper and let it dry in the air.
Calculate the casein percentage in milk as follows:
% Casein = (grams of casein \ grams of milk) x 100
Normal Range 3-5 %