1. The Language of Research
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2. Construct
Abstraction that cannot be observed directly but are useful in interpreting empirical data and in theory building
People differ in what they can learn and how quickly they can learn. Scientist invented a construct called intelligence
other examples are: motivation, reading readiness, anxiety, underachievement, creativity, self-concept, maturity and many more.
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3. Specification of meaning
Constructs may be defined in a way that gives general meaning or they may be defined in terms of the operation by which they will be measured or manipulated
Constitutive definition
A dictionary type of definition or formal definition
For example, inteligence may be defined as the ability to think abstractly or the capacity to acquire knowledge
Important to define so that readers know what is meant by the term and to enable other research to duplicate the research
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4. Operational definition
Helps researcher bridge the gap between theoretical and observable
Two types of operational definition:
measured operational definition and
experimental operational definition
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5. Measured operational definition:
Details the operation by which the investigator measure the construct
Example:
Inteligence may be defined operationally as scores on Stanford-Binet Intel Scale
Creativity may operationally refer to…
So, when you define the construct in terms of how they are measured, you know precisely what it is meant by the term
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6. Experimental Operation Definition
Details the steps taken to produce certain experimental conditions
Example:
Frustration in the study may take the form of preventing subjects from reaching the goal
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7. Why operationally defined the construct?
To delimit a term
To ensure that people understand particular way a term is used
To allow researcher to proceed with investigation that might not be possible
Example:
In practice, the investigation of the relationship between construct creativity and the construct intelligence refers to scores on an intelligence test to scores on a measure of creativity
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8. Variables Characteristics by which persons or objects can be described
Characteristics that do vary and can be put on a continuum or spectrum
Characteristics that can change from time to time for given persons or objects
There are variation within the class or subjects
Must have more than one level
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9. To study the effect of reinforcement on students achievement
Example:
To study the effect of reinforcement on students achievement
Select 9th graders
Divide into 3 groups
Teachers give different reinforcement
(verbal praise, monetary rewards, extra points)
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10. Discrete or categorical or qualitative
Types of variables
Discrete or categorical or qualitative
Can only take on specific values
Do not vary in degree, amount, quantity but are qualitatively different
The simplest form of categorical variable: gender (male-female).
When there are two categories it is known as dichotomous
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11. Other examples of categorical variables
Marital status
Types of occupation
Location of residence
Ethnics
Political pereference
Hair colour,
Brand of a car
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12. Quantitative variable
Also known as continous variable
It exist in some degrees along a continuum from less to more
Numbers are assigned to indicate how much of the variable they possess
Can take on any value
IQ, Age, Height, Weigth, Interest
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13. Which of the folowing are categorical and quantitative
Religion
Cleaness
Hair calor
Race
Gender
SES
Curiosity
Writing ability
Efficiency
CGPA
Height
Running Speed
Teaching Mthods
Leadership style
Level of motivation
Intelligence
Komitment
Job Satisfaction
Level of Education
Type oh Job
School Climate
Type of School
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14. Classification of variables
Independent
Presumed cause
Antecedent
Variable predicted from
Denoted by X
The thing you think will produce a difference and thing the experimenter change somehow
Treatment
factors
Dependent
Presumed effect
Consequences
Variable predicted from
Denoted by Y
The thing that is supposed to change
Thing that shoud be affected
Criterion
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15. Types of independent variable
Attribute:
Variable that cannot be manipulated. [gender, SES, IQ, Hair Color etc]
Also known as assigned, measured, organismic, personological, sociological, psycho-sociological, demographic
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16. Some variables can be manipulated but are not manipulated in a particular investigation
Type of curriculum
Section of a course
Usually subject self-select the level of the independent variable or naturally occuring
Very common in ex post facto research
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17. Active independent variable
Also called experimental variable
Manipulated variable
Treatment variable
Variable can be manipulated and are manipulated in a particular investigation
Method of teaching
What is manipulation?
Random assigment of experimental units or subjects to levels of the independent variable
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18. Intervening variable, extraneous, confounding or contaminating variables
Things affecting dependent variable other than the independent variable
Cause a threat to the validity of the study
This is a major problem in any study
Give example
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19. Test wiseness affect test performance
Children who are blocked from reaching their goals exhibit more aggressive acts than children not so blocked
Girls who plan to pursue careers in science are more aggressive, less conforming, more independent and have a greater need for achievement than girls who do not plan such careers
Under intangible reinforcement conditiond, middle-class children will learn significantly better than lower-class children
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20. Students who have completed how to study course will make a significantly higher grade-point average than students who have never taken such a course
Individual who graduate with Doctor of Education in educational administration attain better paying jobs than those who received a Doctor of Philosophy in educational administration
Perceptions of the characteristics of the good or effective teacher are in part determined by the perceivers’ attitude toward education
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21. Dependent variable
Variable that the independent variable is presumed to affect
Variable that depends on independent variable
Outcome variable
Example:
The amount of uneasiness that applicants for a position express in an interview
How anxious students are before the examination
Neatness
Openness of a classroom
Fluency in a foreign language
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22. Research in education may study the relationship between either
(a) two or more quantitative variables,
(b) one categorical and one quantitative variable, or
(c) two or more categorical variable
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23. Two quantitative variables
Age and amount of interest in school
Reading achievement and mathematics achievement
Classroom humanism and student motivation
Amount of time watching television and agressiveness of behavior
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24. One categorical and one quantitative
Method used to teach reading and reading achievement
Counselling approach and level of anxiety
Nationality and liking for school
Student gender and amount of praise given by teachers
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25. Two categorical variables
Ethnicity and father’s occupation
Gender of teacher and subject taught
Administrative style and college major
Religious affiliation and political party membership
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26. Constant
A fixed value within the study, that is all members of the class are identical
There is no variation
No change of characteristics
Example:
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27. Ugama yang dianuti Kecerdasan Kebersihan Komitment Warna mata/rambut
Kepuasan bekerja
Bangsa
Tahap pendidikan
Jantina
Jenis pekerjaan
SES
Leadership style
Curiousity
Iklim sekolah
Writing ability
Kualiti sekolah
Math ability
Jenis sekolah
Kecekapan
CGPA
Test anxiety
Ketinggian
Grade level
Kepantasan berlari
Kaedah mengajra
Jenis kenderaan
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28. Yang manakah independent dan yang manakah dependent?
effects of instructional variables on languange ability of preschool children
the validity of predictors of performance in law school
computer based drill and practice in arithmatics: widening the gap between high and low achieving students
learning disable children self concept
sex difference in choice of college science majors
Test wiseness affetct test performance
Children who are blocked from reaching their goals exhibit more aggressive act thath childern who are blocked
Girls who plan to pursue career in science are more aggressive than
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