1. Vietnam War & Late Civil Rights
Unit 19/20
Vietnam War & Late Civil Rights

2. The Kennedy Years
Young and idealistic, President John F. Kennedy was elected in He promised a “New Frontier” using federal power to solve problems at home and defend freedom abroad.
Kennedy’s Space Program competed with the Soviets. The Presidents’ Council on Mental Retardation and the Special Olympics brought attention to disabled persons. Kennedy also set up a federal commission to report on the status of women and signed the Equal Pay Act.
Other “New Frontier” reforms, involving taxes, housing, and civil rights, were halted in Congress
Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald in November 1963

3. The Johnson Years
Lyndon B. Johnson became President in An experienced manager of the Senate, Johnson began his term by passing much of Kennedy’s reform legislation as a tribute.
Johnson called for a War on Poverty. The Economic Opportunity Act established programs like Job Corps, to train youths, and VISTA, a domestic “peace corps”
Johnson won a landslide victory against Barry Goldwater in 1964, giving him control of Congress. He proposed his “Great Society” reform program, the most ambitious since the New Deal
Medicare and Medicaid gave health insurance to all seniors, the poor, children pregnant women and the disabled. These were the most enduring of all the “Great Society” Programs

4. The Johnson Years, cont.
Federal money was given to education , like Project Head Start for low income youths.
The Housing and Urban Development gave federal aid to poor areas of cities. The Appalachian Regional Development Act gave aid to one of America’s poorest regions.
The Immigration Act of 1965 replaced the previous system base on national origins by establishing he same immigration quotia for all countries
Other achievements include the creation of the National Foundation for the Arts and Humanities, a higher minimum wage, environmental reform, and the creation of PBS.

5. The Warren Court
The Supreme Court under Earl Warren became and instrument of social change, expanding the rights of all Americans. Some Americans opposed such judicial activism.
The Court made important decisions on freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and rights for criminal suspects in cases like Yates v. United States, Baker v. Carr; Engel v Vitale, Gideon v. Wainwright and Miranda v Arizona.

6. Background to the Vietnam War: the Struggle over Indochina
Indochina was a French colony in the 19th century; it was then seized by Japan in Communist Ho Chi Minh led a nationalist resistance movement. After the war, he declared Vietnam to be independent. France refused to accept the new nation, leading to armed conflict for nine years.
In 1954, France surrendered. In the Geneva Accords, Laos and Cambodia became independent. Vietnam was divided between Communist North Vietnam and South Vietnam under the Vietnamese Emperor. Elections and reunification were supposed to occur in 1956.

7. The Vietnam War: Early American Involvement
In the South, Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem deposed the Emperor. Diem refused to hold elections in 1956, and established an oppressive, conservative regime in the South. South Vietnamese Communist formed a revolutionary army, the Vietcong, and began guerrilla warfare.
The U.S. supported South Vietnam for a number of reasons. It feared the “domino theory”, had obligations under SEATO, believed that Vietnam would benefit from democracy, wanted to assure the “Free World” of its protection, and thought it could win the war easily.
American involvement began when President Kennedy sent military advisers to Diem. When both leaders were assassinated in 1963, President Johnson escalated involvement. After a supposed attack on American ships, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This gave Johnson extraordinary powers of intervention. He sent the first troops to Vietnam in 1965.

8. The Vietnam War: Escalation
Johnson hoped to win the war with American technological superiority. Bombs, skin-burning napalm, environmentally destructive Agent Orange, and helicopters were used.
Americans still faced problems. They were not used to the environment. The Vietcong planned successful guerilla attacks. They often hid among civilians, so American “search and destroy” missions sometimes destroyed whole villages. Many civilians fled to cities like Saigon, which became overcrowded and corrupt. The U.S. became increasingly unpopular.
In 1968, the Vietcong launched the “Tet Offensive”. Although eventually driven out, the attack showed their strength. Johnson announced he would not run for another term as President.

9. The Vietnam War: Escalation, cont.
The war dragged on because America did not want to surrender and seem weak to the world, but the Communists were committed to their cause and were aided by China and Russia.
Nixon was elected President in His policy of “Vietnamization” replaced American troops with South Vietnamese. Yet he also increased bombings in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos.
In 1973, Dr. Henry Kissinger signed the Paris Peace Accords with North Vietnam. The U.S. withdrew all troops but continued to send aid. South Vietnam fell to the Communists in 1975.

10. A Divided Home Front
As the war dragged on, the home front became divided. “Doves” thought the war was immoral and wanted the U.S. to withdraw. “Hawks” wanted to continue the war to stop Communism.
The Vietnam War was the first televised war. The media covered it closely, but the government sometimes twisted facts to impress the public. This led to a “credibility gap”. Distrust in government grew, especially when Nixon tried to conceal the Pentagon Papers, a secret government war study.
The “Baby Boom” generation created a new, anti-conformist Youth Culture in the 60s. Some created radical groups like SDS; others experimented with drugs like LSD, and still others became “hippies”.
Many students became political. They resented the draft and the war. In 1968, a protest at the Democratic National Convention turned violent. In 1970, National Guardsmen killed students at Kent State University. Government and police violence only increased resistance.

11. Consequences of the Vietnam War
Vietnam suffered the most from the war. More than a million Vietnamese were killed, and villages, cities, and farmlands were destroyed.
58,000 Americans were killed. Others were badly injured and/or suffered psychological trauma.
The Communist Vietnamese regime was repressive, and many fled. Some came to the United States.
In Cambodia, the “Khmer Rouge” won power and committed acts of genocide.
In America, war expenses ended many of the “Great Society” programs. Americans lost faith in their government and in the power of the military. American youth were especially disillusioned.
Congress passed the War Powers Act in 1973, limiting the President’s power to commit troops overseas without Congressional approval.

12. The Women’s Liberation Movement: Formation
The first phase of the women’s movement in the early 20th century had aimed at political equality. The second phase in the ‘60s and ‘70s focused on economic and social equality.
In 1963, President Kennedy’s Commission on the Status of Women showed widespread gender discrimination. Women held lower-level jobs and did not receive equal pay.
In 1963, Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique. She voiced the resentment of many educated, middle-class women’s at their stifling roles as housewives and expressed their desire for careers.
Many women, inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, formed women’s groups and appointed leaders. In 1966, the National Organization for Women (N.O.W.) was organized.

13. The Women’s Liberation Movement: Goals and Accomplishments
The movement was affected by the Sexual Revolution. People began to talk openly about sex, while the birth control pill allowed greater sexual freedom.
Feminists wanted to end discrimination in education. The Equal Opportunity in Education Act, or Title IX, required schools and universities to stop discrimination against women. Most schools became co-ed.
Feminists also wanted to end employment discrimination. The Equal Pay Act required equal pay, the Civil Rights Act prohibited hiring discrimination, and “affirmative action” programs required hiring more women. Companies provided maternity leave and day care to women workers.

14. The Women’s Liberation Movement: Goals and Accomplishments
Feminists wanted to change social attitudes. They fought sexual discrimination in language, pop culture, and private homes. They called on men to respect women and share their duties.
Feminists also tried but failed to pass the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), a constitutional amendment. Many opposed it, fearing it would take away advantages like women’s exemption from the draft. Phyllis Schlafly became a vocal supporter of women’s traditional roles.
In Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court upheld the right to abortion in the first three months. “Right to Life” opponents argued that abortion was murder. “Pro-Choice” supporters argued that abortion was a private choice. Later rulings have limited Roe v. Wade. Abortion remains a very divisive issue.