1. CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

2. Physical Evidence Almost anything can be Physical Evidence.
It is useful to discuss some of the most common types of physical evidence.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

3. Physical Evidence
The purpose of recognizing physical evidence is so that it can be collected and analyzed.
It is difficult to ascertain the weight a given piece of evidence will have in a case, as ultimately the weight will be decided by a jury.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

4. Types of Physical Evidence
Blood, semen, and saliva
Documents
Drugs
Explosives
Fibers
Fingerprints
Firearms and ammunition
Glass
Hair
Impressions
Organs and physiological fluids
Paint
Petroleum products
Plastic bags
Plastic, rubber, and other polymers
Powder residues
Soil and minerals
Tool marks
Vehicle lights
Wood and other vegetative matter
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

5. Purpose of Examining Physical Evidence
The examination of physical evidence by a forensic scientist is usually undertaken for identification or comparison purposes.
Identification has, as its purpose, the determination of the physical or chemical identity of a substance with as near absolute certainty as existing analytical techniques will permit.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

6. Purpose of Examining Physical Evidence
A comparison analysis subjects a suspect specimen and a standard/reference specimen to the same tests and examinations for the ultimate purpose of determining whether or not they have a common origin.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

7. Identification
The object of an identification is to determine the physical or chemical identity with as near absolute certainty as existing analytical techniques will permit.
The process of identification first requires the adoption of testing procedures that give characteristic results for specific standard materials.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

8. Identification
Once these test results have been established, they may be permanently recorded and used repeatedly to prove the identity of suspect materials.
Identification also requires that the number and type of tests needed to identify a substance be sufficient to exclude all other substances.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

9. Common Types of Identification
The crime laboratory is frequently requested to identify the chemical composition of an illicit drug.
Ex. It may be asked to identify gasoline in residues recovered from the debris of a fire, or it may have to identify the nature of explosive residues—for example, dynamite or TNT.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

10. Common Types of Identification
The identification of blood, semen, hair, or wood are also very common and, as a matter of routine, include a determination for species origin.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

11. Comparison
A comparative analysis has the important role of determining whether or not a suspect specimen and a standard/reference specimen have a common origin.
Both the standard/reference and the suspect specimen are subject to the same tests.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

12. Comparison A forensic comparison is actually a two-step procedure:
Combinations of select properties are chosen from the suspect and the standard/reference specimen for comparison.
Once the examination has been completed, the forensic scientist must be prepared to render a conclusion with respect to the origins.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

13. Role of Probability
To comprehend the evidential value of a comparison, one must appreciate the role that probability has in ascertaining the origins of two or more specimens.
Simply defined, probability is the frequency of occurrence of an event.
In flipping a coin, probability is easy to establish.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

14. Role of Probability
With many analytical processes exact probability is impossible to define.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

15. Classifying Characteristics
Individual Characteristics:
Evidence that can be associated to a common source with an extremely high degree of probability is said to possess individual characteristics.
Class Characteristics:
Evidence associated only with a group is said to have class characteristics.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

16. Individual Characteristics
In all cases, it is not possible to state with mathematical exactness the probability that the specimens are of common origin.
It can only be concluded that this probability is so high as to defy mathematical calculations or human comprehension.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

17. Individual Characteristics Examples
The matching ridge characteristics of two fingerprints
The comparison of random striation markings on bullets or tool marks
The comparison of irregular and random wear patterns in tire or footwear impressions
The comparison of handwriting characteristics
The fitting together of the irregular edges of broken objects in the manner of a jigsaw puzzle
Matching sequentially-made plastic bags by striation marks running across the bags
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

18. Class Characteristics
Surprising to the inexperienced forensic scientist is the frequent inability of the laboratory to relate physical evidence to a common origin with a high degree of certainty.
Evidence is said to possess class characteristics when it can be associated only with a group and never with a single source.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

19. Class Characteristics
Here again, probability is a determining factor.
Nevertheless, the high diversity of class evidence in our environment makes their comparison very significant in the context of a criminal investigation.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

20. Class Evidence
One of the current weaknesses of forensic science is the inability of the examiner to assign exact or even approximate probability values to the comparison of most class physical evidence.
For example, what is the probability that a nylon fiber originated from a particular sweater, or that a paint chip came from a suspect car in a hit and run?
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

21. Class Evidence
There are very few statistical data available from which to derive this information, and in a mass- produced world, gathering this kind of data is increasingly elusive.
One of the primary endeavors of forensic scientists must be to create and update statistical databases for evaluating the significance of class physical evidence.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

22. Class Evidence
Most items of physical evidence retrieved at crime scenes cannot be linked definitively to a single person or object.
The value of class physical evidence lies in its ability to provide corroboration of events with data that are, as near as possible, free of human error and bias.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

23. Class Evidence
The chances are low of encountering two indistinguishable items of physical evidence at a crime scene that actually originated from different sources.
When one is dealing with more than one type of class evidence, their collective presence may lead to an extremely high certainty that they originated from the same source.
Finally, the contribution of physical evidence is ultimately determined in the courtroom.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

24. Crossing Over
Crossing over the line from class to individual does not end the discussion.
How many striations are necessary to individualize a mark to a single tool and no other?
How many color layers individualize a paint chip to a single car?
How many ridge characteristics individualize a fingerprint?
How many handwriting characteristics tie a person to a signature?
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

25. Crossing Over
These are all questions that defy simple answers and are the basis of arguments.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

26. Natural vs. Evidential Limits
There are practical limits to the properties and characteristics that the forensic scientist can select for comparison.
Modern analytical techniques have become so sophisticated and sensitive that natural variations in objects become almost infinite.
Carrying natural variations to the extreme, no two things in this world are alike in every detail.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

27. Natural vs. Evidential Limits
Evidential variations are not the same as natural variations.
Distinguishing variations of evidential use from natural variations is not always an easy task.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

28. Using Physical Evidence
As the number of different objects linking an individual to a crime scene increases, so too does the likelihood of that individual’s involvement with the crime.
Just as important, a person may be exonerated or excluded from suspicion if physical evidence collected at a crime scene is found to be different from standard/reference samples collected from that subject.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

29. Forensic Databases
The Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), a national fingerprint and criminal history system maintained by the FBI.
The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) enables federal, state, and local crime laboratories to exchange and compare DNA profiles electronically.
The National Integrated Ballistics Information Network (NIBIN) allows firearm analysts to acquire, digitize, and compare markings made by a firearm on bullets and cartridge casings.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein

30. Forensic Databases
The International Forensic Automotive Paint Data Query (PDQ) database contains chemical and color information pertaining to original automotive paints.
SICAR (Shoeprint Image Capture And Retrieval) is a shoeprint database.
FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction by Richard Saferstein