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Chapter 3 Neoclassical Criminology
Lee Ayers-Schlosser, Southern Oregon University
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Chapter Objectives (1 of 2)
Understand the social context of neoclassical theories and their rise to prominence in America during the 1970s. Grasp the central concepts in deterrence theory, including specific, general, and marginal deterrence. Understand what the various empirical tests indicate about the empirical status of deterrence theory.
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Chapter Objectives (2 of 2)
Know the central concepts in the routine activity and lifestyle approaches to criminal behavior. Understand rational choice theory and its relation to deterrence. Understand the policy implications of rational choice theory, including criminal justice policies and situational crime prevention.
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You Are the Criminologist
Can Drunk Driving Be Deterred? Will increasing penalties for drunk driving reduce the behavior? Do individuals considering driving after having consumed alcohol think about the consequences of their actions? What effect does increasing punishment have on other kinds of criminal offenses?
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Introduction to Neoclassical Theory
Builds on classical school theories Emphasizes the role of the criminal justice system in crime prevention Redefines classical school statements about deterrence Contributes evidence through empirical testing
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The Rise of Neoclassical Theory
1800s—Classical school of thought diminished; positive school gained popularity. 1900s—Sociological, biological, and psychological theories dominated. 1970s—Corrective goal of rehabilitation (in line with positive theories) was attacked and labeled a failure.
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Get-Tough Movement (1 of 2)
Return to the use of prisons to punish and deter rather than rehabilitate Recommended lengthy (more painful) prison terms, corporal punishment, and death penalty
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Get-Tough Movement (2 of 2)
Examples Chain gangs and old-time striped uniforms Sheriff Joe Arpaio’s tent jails Inmates wore pink underwear No cigarettes or coffee No recreational activities
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Get-Tough Theory (1 of 6) 1. Punishment 2. Retribution
3. Just desserts 4. Incapacitation 5. Deterrence
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Get-Tough Theory (2 of 6) 1. Punishment
Collective expression of society’s disapproval of criminal acts
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Get-Tough Theory (3 of 6) 2. Retribution
Implies that criminals deserve to be punished because they have violated the legal system from which everyone benefits Sends a message that crime will not be tolerated
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Get-Tough Theory (4 of 6) 3. Just deserts
Punishment rightfully reflects the pain caused and earned by the criminal. Sentences should be commensurate with the seriousness of the crime. Criminals who committed the same type of crime should receive the same sentence.
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Get-Tough Theory (5 of 6) 4. Incapacitation
Prevent future crime by locking up offenders Collective incapacitation—reduction of crime through a change in sentencing structure Selective incapacitation—control crime by sentencing individual offenders Results Moderate decreases in robbery, larceny, burglary Slight decrease in assault, homicide, rape Concern: fiscal limitations
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Get-Tough Theory (6 of 6) 5. Deterrence
Reduce criminal behavior by sending a message to offender and society that crime doesn’t pay
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Key Elements of Deterrence Theory (1 of 2)
Humans are rational, pleasure-seeking, pain-avoiding creatures. People will engage in criminal behavior when it brings them pleasure and carries little risk of pain. Formal punishment has the potential to reduce crime.
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Key Elements of Deterrence Theory (2 of 2)
Assumptions Humans are rational and hedonistic. Levels of Deterrence Specific (individual) General (society at large) Effective Punishment Swift Certain Severe
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Deterrence Theory Levels of deterrence
General—sends a message to the public Specific—offenders who feel the pain of punishment will be less likely to commit future crimes
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Empirical Testing Focuses on effects of marginal vs. absolute deterrence Marginal deterrence: incremental increases in punishment to decrease crime Absolute deterrence: formal system of punishments that deters criminal behavior
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General Deterrence Research (1 of 5)
Increases in the certainty, severity, or swiftness of punishment; decreases crime overall. Most studies examine one aspect (generally certainty or severity).
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General Deterrence Research (2 of 5)
Death penalty (severity) Majority of studies found no effect on homicide rates Minority of studies found: Brutalization effect (increase in violent crime) Minor deterrent effect
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General Deterrence Research (3 of 5)
Clearance rate (certainty) Odds of getting caught Majority of studies found no effect on crime Minority of studies found slight decrease with the clearance rate reaching a tipping point
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General Deterrence Research (4 of 5)
Police experiments Kansas City Preventative Patrol—double police had no effect on crime Moderate, short-lived reductions in crime with: Directed patrols Saturation patrols Zero-tolerance policing
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General Deterrence Research (5 of 5)
Perceptions Research (certainty and severity) Those who believe that punishment is severe and certainty is high are less likely to engage in crime. Experiential effect—over time, offenders lower their estimates of severity and certainty.
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Specific Deterrence Research (1 of 4)
Offenders who are punished will be less likely to commit future crimes. Recidivism studies show generally a 60–75% recidivism rate within 3 years.
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Specific Deterrence Research (2 of 4)
Probation vs. intensive programs Correctional boot camps Intense supervision probation (ISP) No effect on criminal behavior “Scared Straight” (television documentary) No positive effect on criminal behavior Actually increases crime
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Specific Deterrence Research (3 of 4)
Police arrest experiments Early studies had mixed findings. Initial study showed that arresting domestic violence perpetrators reduced future incidents. Later studies showed this is only applicable to those with conventional social ties (e.g., employment) and desire for social conformity.
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Specific Deterrence Research (4 of 4)
Police arrest experiments Indirect costs of arrest Commitment costs—future opportunities Attachment costs—loss/harm personal relationships Stigma—negative reputation
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Celerity Swiftness of punishment
Animal studies—more effective than delayed punishment Human studies—celerity does not reduce recidivism Cognitive ability to link delayed punishment with behavior Criminal justice process reminds offenders of their crime
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Summary of Deterrence Theory (1 of 2)
Swift, certain, severe punishment will reduce crime for: General public (general deterrence) Individual offender (specific deterrence) Deterrence theory focuses on formal punishment (arrest, prison) rather than informal controls.
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Summary of Deterrence Theory (2 of 2)
Certainty is the most effective element in deterrence. Deterrence effects are not very strong. Possible flaws: People may not be completely rational. Empirical testing focuses on marginal increases rather than the absolute deterrence. Criminal justice system is limited in a democratic society.
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Rational Choice Theory (1 of 7)
Individuals will weigh the costs and benefits of crime. Individuals will choose criminal behavior when the benefits outweigh costs.
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Rational Choice Theory (2 of 7)
Includes: Formal sanctions—arrest, prison Informal sanctions—shame, job loss Tangible benefits—money, property Intangible benefits—thrill, respect
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Rational Choice Theory (3 of 7)
Broader than deterrence theory (multiple costs and rewards) Criminals not purely rational Criminals bound by factors such as: Time Cognitive ability Moral values
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Rational Choice Theory (4 of 7)
Cornish and Clarke’s rational choice theory Multistage process over a long period of time Rationality (a pure cost-benefit analysis) is limited Focus on situational factors that influence criminal decision making
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Rational Choice Theory (5 of 7)
Criminal decision making Criminal involvement—whether to engage in crime in general How, when, and where to commit a crime
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Rational Choice Theory (6 of 7)
Rational choice model for burglary Background factors (upbringing) Previous learning experience (direct and observational experience with crime) Generalized needs (money, sex, excitement) Evaluation of solutions (degree of reward and punishments) Solutions (legal or illegal)
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Rational Choice Theory (7 of 7)
Criticism Little evidence of pure rational decision making Respondents motivated by reward but underestimated the costs and risk of punishment Limiting factors borrowed from competing crime theories Many factors constrain/limit rational decision making
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Routine Activities Theory (1 of 4)
Shares some similarities with deterrence and rational choice theory Assumes that offenders make rational assessments about crime targets Shifts attention away from offenders and toward the victims of crime
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Routine Activities Theory (2 of 4)
Developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson For any crime to occur, you must have: Motivated offender Suitable target Absence of capable guardian
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Routine Activities Theory (3 of 4)
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Routine Activities Theory (4 of 4)
Suitable target Value Inertia Visibility Access
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The Lifestyle Approach (1 of 3)
Developed by Hindelang, Gottfredson, and Garofalo Certain groups, by virtue of their lifestyle, place themselves at greater risk for victimization.
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The Lifestyle Approach (2 of 3)
Lifestyle—the patterned way in which people distribute their time and energies across a range of activities Greater chance of victimization with: More time away from home (greater target visibility or exposure to offenders) Fewer household members (lack of guardians) Many aspects of lifestyle not easily altered
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The Lifestyle Approach (3 of 3)
Extra precautions—do not necessarily reduce risk Adolescents—delinquent behavior linked to increased risk of victimization Inmate studies—more time in structured, supervised activities leads to less risk
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Police Implications: Situational Crime Prevention (1 of 5)
Opportunity theories share a focus on situational factors Rational choice theory Routine activities theory Lifestyle approach Policy goal: reduce opportunity for crime by focusing on the context
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Police Implications: Situational Crime Prevention (2 of 5)
Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) Designing an environment to prevent crime Natural strategies (design, layout) Organized strategies (security guards, police) Mechanical strategies (alarms, cameras)
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Police Implications: Situational Crime Prevention (3 of 5)
Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) Should occur as consequence of everyday life Examples: Better street lighting Access control and surveillance
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Police Implications: Situational Crime Prevention (4 of 5)
Criticism Crime displacement—improving the environment in one place may simply shift crime to a different location. All crime affects society at large. Environmental design can control some crimes, but it doesn’t solve underlying problems.
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Police Implications: Situational Crime Prevention (5 of 5)
Situational crime prevention is more popular in other countries than in the United States Safe City program
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Conclusion (1 of 3) Neoclassical theories attractive because they give the impression of being tough on crime Incapacitation and deterrence not proven effective Large prison population has negative consequences Crime control policies—focus on increasing certainty of punishment (rather than severity) Flaws: Not all criminals are rational. Potential for crime prevention is limited by legal and social controls.
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Conclusion (2 of 3) Theory Authors Summary Policy Implications
Deterrence Beccaria, Bentham Swift, certain, and severe formal punishment reduces crime. Use criminal justice system to increase certainty, severity, and celerity. Incapacitation for those who are not deterred. Rational Choice Cornish, Clarke Offenders rationally decide how to engage in crime. Situational crime prevention
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Conclusion (3 of 3) Theory Authors Summary Policy Implications
Routine Activities Cohen, Felson Convergence of: Motivated offender Suitable target Lack of capable guardian Situational crime prevention Lifestyles Approach Hindelang, Gottfredson, Garofalo Certain groups of people have higher risk of victimization due to their lifestyles.
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