1. The Microbiological Safety of Wine
Sara Azevedo
Wine Institute
Greg Hodson, PhD
Wine Institute Technical Advisory Committee Chair
24 May 2016
San Luis Obispo, CA
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

2. The Microbiological Safety of Wine
This presentation is based on the MICROBIOLOGICALLY, WINE IS A LOW FOOD SAFETY RISK CONSUMER PRODUCT paper prepared for the Apec Wine Regulatory Forum.
The paper has been endorsed by World Wine Trade Group (WWTG) member countries (Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, New Zealand, republic of Georgia, South Africa and U.S.A.) as well members of the International Trade association FIVS.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

3. Presentation Overview
Characteristics which make wine a, MICROBIOLOGICALLY, LOW FOOD SAFETY RISK CONSUMER PRODUCT
Acidity & Polyphenols
Alcohol Content
Sulphite Content
The Hurdle Concept
Resulting Regulatory Framework
Conclusions
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

4. Executive Summary Scientific studies indicate
wine does not support the growth of pathogenic microorganisms
wine has anti-microbial properties due to its high acidity (low pH), polyphenol content, alcohol content, and sulphite content
wine is recognized as a consumer product with a low microbiological safety risk. Accordingly governments have issued guidance and employed proportionate regulatory frameworks from a food safety standpoint.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

5. Wine Characteristics: Acidity
Two important facts
Wine is a high acid (and therefore low pH food)
High acid foods present a hostile environment for microorganisms
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

6. Wine Characteristics: Acidity
Wide Consensus among academics, trade press and Analytical instrument manufacturers is
The pH of wine is typically between 2.9 and 3.9
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

7. pH : How low can pathogens grow?
Min. pH
Bacillus Cereus
4.3
Campylobacter Jejuni
4.9
Clostridium Botulinum (A, proteolytic B&F)
4.6
Clostridium Botulinum (E, non-proteolytic B&F)
5.0
Clostridium Perfringens
Pathogenic E.Coli
4.0
Listeria Monocytogenes
4.4
Salmonella spp.
3.7
Shigella spp.
4.8
Staphylococcus Aureus (growth)
Staphylococcus Aureus (toxin formation)
Vibrio Cholerae
Vibrio Parahaemolyticus
Vibrio vulnificus
Yersinia Enterocolitica
4.2
Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Control Guidance
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 4: 420 (
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

8. Wine Characteristics: Acidity
Based on acidity alone- almost no pathogens will survive in wine.
However, literature also suggests the polyphenolic chemicals present in wine act synergistically to enhance its overall antimicrobial character.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

9. Studies on Anti-Microbial Effects of High Acidity & Polyphenols
“…food-borne bacteria were killed in both red and white wine within thirty minutes,”
Department of Human and Environmental Sciences at the Ochanomizu University, Japan (
“…consumption of wine during a meal may lower the risk of toxi-infection caused by certain pathogens,”
Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Portugal (
“[red wine has] significant anti-norovirus effects on foodborne viruses,”
- Researchers, South Korea (
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

10. Studies on Anti-Microbial Effects of High Acidity & Polyphenols
All three studies concluded that high acidity (low pH) and polyphenolic compounds contributed significantly to wine’s antimicrobial properties.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

11. Wine Characteristics: Alcohol
In addition to high acidity and polyphenolic characteristics- another anti-microbial factors at work in wine is alcohol.
Alcohol creates a hostile environment for microorganisms.
By regulation around the world, wine most often is defined as having a minimum of 7% alcohol by volume.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

12. Wine Characteristics: Alcohol
Ethanol (Alcohol) at higher concentrations (70-80%) is used in sanitation products like hand sanitizers.
Nevertheless, at lower concentrations, ethanol does have the ability to inhibit and kill pathogenic microorganisms
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

13. Wine Characteristics: Alcohol
“The general mode of action for inactivation of microorganisms by alcohols is by denaturation of proteins, with the primary site of action being the cell (plasma) membrane.... Moulds and actinomycetes are most susceptible to alcohols and are inhibited at 4% (v/v) whereas most bacteria can still grow at this concentration. Application of 5.5 % (v/v) shows a bacteriostatic effect on E. coli…”
- Understanding Pathogen Behaviour Virulence, Stress Response and Resistance (pg ), Edited by Mansel Griffiths (
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

14. Wine Characteristics: Alcohol
On the basis of this information it is demonstrated that the alcohol content in wine alone will exert a bacteriostatic effect on microorganisms.
But yet again, there are more anti-microbial factors at work in wine- like sulphites.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

15. Wine Characteristics: Sulphites
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) & sulphites (INS ):
Sulfur dioxide is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent which inhibits a wide variety of microorganisms.
For white wines, a level of 0.8 ppm molecular SO2 will slow down the growth of yeast and will prevent the growth of most other microbes.
Depending on the wine pH,
ppm of free SO2 will give
0.8 ppm molecular SO2 in the wine.
SULFUR DIOXIDE. The science behind this anti-microbial, anti-oxidant wine additive, Pat Henderson, Practical Winery & Vineyard .
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

16. Hurdle Concept
The concept of combining several factors to preserve foods has been called the hurdle effect, where each factor is a hurdle that microorganisms must overcome in order to survive.
Hurdle technology is the deliberate combining of factors to create an environment in food where microbiological safety is ensured.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

17. Hurdle Concept Physico-chemical hurdles to growth of micro-organisms
Carbon dioxide
Ozone
Ethanol (Alcohol)
Phenols
Lactic Acid
Phosphates
Lactoperoxidase
Salt
Low pH
Smoking
Low redox potential
Sodium nitrite/nitrate
Low water activity
Sodium or potassium sulphite
Maillard reaction products
Spices and herbs
Organic acids
Surface treatment agents
Oxygen
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

18. Hurdle Concept
Wine naturally contains as many as six hurdles, many of which on their own make the growth of pathogens almost impossible.
Collectively, it is certain that pathogenic micro-organisms cannot survive in wine.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

19. Hurdle concept in Wine
“Alcohol is an effective antimicrobial at levels as low as 2.5%”
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology (
“When different combinations of ethanol, organic acids, and acidity were tested against the pathogens, it was found that a composition of 0.15% malic acid, 0.6% tartaric acid, 15% ethanol, and pH 3.0 has a strong bactericidal effect”.
- Microbial Safety of Minimally Processed Foods (
“The wines tested had strong antibacterial activity against the 4 pathogens, S. Typhimurium, E. coli O157:H7, L. monocytogenes, and S. aureus”
- Journal of Food Science (
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

20. Food Safety Risk Management
Wine is an acidic (low pH), alcohol and polyphenol containing product often treated with sulphites- giving it strong anti-microbial properties.
It is a consumer product with low microbiological food safety risk.
governments have regulated wine accordingly.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

21. Low Risk Food: Philippines
Republic of the Philippines FDA
“…hereby implements an electronic registration (E-registration) system initially applicable for raw materials or ingredients and low risk pre-packaged process food products in order to streamline the application and evaluation process without compromising public health and consumer safety…”
- Wine (including still, sparkling and fortified grape wine) is included as a low risk food in Annex A (
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

22. Time/Temperature Control for Safety (TCS) Foods: U.S.A.
Foods with a pH below 4.2 (not heat treated or heat treated but not packaged) are “non-TCS Foods” (not needing time and temperature treatment to control growth of pathogens and/or spores where applicable).
- Food Code Recommendations of the United States Public Health Service. Food and Drug Administration. Table B, Page
Wine has a pH below 4.0 and is packaged, so would not be expected to support the growth of pathogens and spores.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

23. Low Risk: Australia New Zealand
Food standards Australia New Zealand
Standard Food Safety Practices and General Requirements . “Division 1- Interpretation and application” identifies potentially hazardous food as, “food that has to be kept at certain temperatures to minimise the growth of any pathogenic micro-organisms that may be present in the food or to prevent the formation of toxins in the food.”
Wine does not fit this definition as it does not require temperature-controlled storage, and would therefore not be considered a potentially hazardous food under this Standard.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

24. Low Risk: australia Wine Australia
In the presentation entitled, “The Realm of the State Health Department,” Slide 9 states: ‘Wine is a LOW RISK food’
GOVERNMENT OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA: FOOD POLICY AND PROGRAMS BRANCH
“…Low risk foods are those that are unlikely to contain pathogenic organisms and will not support their growth, and will not introduce microbial…”
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

25. Low Risk: Canada CANADIAN FOOD INSPECTION SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION GROUP
“High risk foods are non-acidic or slightly acidic, moist, and protein foods. These food products require a number of complex control steps to ensure product safety (i.e., proper temperature requirements at various stages of preparation). These foods include meat and meat products, milk and milk products, eggs, poultry, fish and shellfish, as well as gravies, puddings, custards, cream-filled baked goods, potato and other mayonnaise-based salads, cream-based soups and sauces…. Low risk foods are food products which do not pose significant health hazards by themselves.”
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

26. conclusion
Wine is a polyphenolic, high acid (low pH) and alcohol containing product with anti-microbial properties. =
It is a consumer product with low microbiological food safety risk.
It should be regulated accordingly, and this is recognized by many economies around the world.
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.

27. Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste
Gallo produces amazing wines in every category, to suit every taste.  Gallo also imports wines from nine wine growing countries in the world.  Gallo’s wine portfolio totals over 60 unique brands:
Barefoot is the number 1 wine in the US and has introduced many new wine drinkers to the wine category.
In 2011 alone we updated the Bella Sera Label and updated the Redwood Creek Label. Last year we also introduced The Naked Grape from California and Bodega Elena from Argentina.