Robert S. Feldman & Andrea Dinardo

Robert S. Feldman & Andrea Dinardo
Essentials Of Understanding Psychology Third Canadian Edition Robert S. Feldman & Andrea Dinardo Prepared by: Professor Anastasia Bake St. Clair College of Applied Arts and Sciences Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Chapter 1 Introduction To Psychology
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Key Concepts for Chapter 1
Module 1: Psychology At Work Module 2: A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future Module 3: Research in Psychology Module 4: Research Challenges: Exploring the Process In chapter 1, it is important to emphasize the methodical approach the field of psychology uses in order to explore various aspects of human and animal behaviour. The images roughly represent the diversity of information to be covered in the Feldman/Dinardo text – From basic tenets of research to the central concepts of social psychology the field attempts to understand the underlying dynamics of human and animal behaviour and apply its knowledge in order to explain, predict, modify, and improve the lives of people and the world in which we live in. It is also important to outline the “general” interpretation of behavior which includes observable events, as well as, thoughts, feelings, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and biological activities. Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Module 1: Psychology At Work
Learning Objectives What is the science of psychology? What are the major specialties in the field of psychology? Where do psychologist work ? Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology Is: The Scientific Study of Behaviour and Mental Processes

The Six Subfields of Psychology: Psychology's Family Tree
1. What are the Biological Foundations of Behaviour? It is the subfield of psychology that examine how the brain and the nervous system and other biological processes determine behaviour. Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Subfields of Psychology:
2. How Do People Sense, Perceive, Learn, and Think about the World? Experimental Psychology Methodological study of sensing, perceiving, learning and thinking Cognitive Psychology Emphasis on higher mental processes It is helpful to emphasize that experimental psychology provides a template for research for all areas of psychology Cognitive psychology impacts a variety of aspects of our behaviour as evidenced by the areas outlined in chapter 1: thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Subfields of Psychology:
3. What are the Sources of Change and Stability in Behaviour Across the Life Span? Developmental Psychology Changes in behaviour over the life span (womb to tomb) Personality Psychology Examines consistencies in people’s behaviour over time and traits that differentiate us from one another Developmental psychology incorporates the full life span, from heredity to the tomb this area investigates how we grow Personality psychology focuses on consistencies in our behaviour – it is noteworthy to examine the relationship of this area with developmental psychology and clinical psychology Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The Subfields of Psychology
4. How do Psychological Factors Affect Physical and Mental Health? Health Psychology Explores relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease Clinical Psychology Investigates diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders Counselling Psychology Focuses on educational, social and, career adjustment problems Health psychology seeks to provide an “ounce of prevention” to avoid “years of cure”. Clinical psychology represents a diversity of thought ranging from Psychoanalytic approaches to mental health to cognitive behavioural approaches. The common core being the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

5. Understanding our Social Networks Social Psychology Studies how people are affected by others Cross-cultural Psychology Focuses on the similarities and differences in psychological functioning across cultures and ethnic groups Social psychology examines how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. It is helpful to differentiate between this area and the field of sociology which examines social behaviour. Chapter 1 identifies child-rearing and perceptions of academic success as being examples of cross cultural psychology. This may also be applied to intelligence, psychotherapy, and family. Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

6. Expanding Psychologies Frontiers Evolutionary Psychology Examines influence of our genetic heritage and our behaviour Behavioural Genetics Focuses on how we might inherit genes and how the environment influences whether we will display traits. Clinical Neuropsychology Focuses on relationships between biological factors and psychological disorders While discussing the advent of clinical neuropsychology, it is noteworthy to examine the risks and benefits for clinical psychologist to prescribe medication. Proponents view psychologist as being ideal “gate keepers” for the use of medication while others feel prescription privileges would compromise “talk therapy” Evolutionary psychology examines the impact of our genetic heritage upon our behaviour, it is helpful to mention the notion of depression, alcoholism, schizophrenia, etc. as having a strong genetic component As a means to wrap up the diversity of the field, chapter 1 provides information concerning the demographics for the variety of settings in which psychologist work. Such positions as Clinical Psychologist in hospitals, clinics, and private practice as well as educators, researchers, industrial organizational, and school psychologist just to name a few. Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Portrait of a Canadian Psychologist
The Canadian Psychological Association (2007) Annual report lists 5,921 members with Masters or a Doctorate degree Half are men and half are women Currently 70% of new PhD degrees are earned by women Where do they work in the world? Most psychologists today are working in North America About 1/3 of the world's psychologists are found elsewhere Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Countries in the world where psychologists work.

Where Psychologists Work?

Educating Psychologists What Are The Educational Requirements?
Doctoral Degrees (Ph.D. & Psy.D.) Master’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree 4 – 5 years past a bachelor’s degree 2 - 3 years past a Bachelor’s degree 4-year degree As pointed out in the chapter, about a third of people working in the field of psychology have a master’s degree as their highest degree, which is typically earned following 2 to 3 years of graduate work. It is helpful to point out the licensing/certification laws different provinces that allow a psychologist to practice independently in the clinical setting. It is also important to outline the application of a psychology degree to a wide variety of fields, e.g. sales, etc. Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Recap/Evaluate/Rethink: Module 1
1. What is the science of psychology? 2. Name and describe one major specialty in the field of psychology? Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Module 2: A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future
Learning Objectives What are the origins of psychology? What are the major approaches in contemporary psychology? What are psychology’s key issues and controversies? What is the future of psychology likely to hold? Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology’s Roots Early History Trephining : chipping a Wilhelm Wundt
hole in a patient's skull. Evil sprits could then escape! Wilhelm Wundt Established the first experimental laboratory devoted to psychology. Structuralism Focused on the basic building blocks of perception, consciousness, thinking, and emotions - Introspection Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology’s Roots Functionalism
Moved from structure to the role behaviour plays in allowing people to adapt to their environments Gestalt Psychology “the whole is different from the sum of its parts” Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

This timeline illustrates the major milestones in the development of psychology
Mary Calkins Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Women in Psychology Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) Mary J. Wright
Was the first women to receive a doctorate in psychology Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886 – 1939) Child development and women’s issues Mary J. Wright Became the first female president of the Canadian Psychological Association in 1969 In 2001 she was awarded the Gold Medal Award of Distinguish Lifetime contribution to Canadian Psychology. Mary Calkins (1883 – 1930) See timeline First female in the APA . Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Women in Psychology June Etta Downey (1875 – 1932)
Personality trait theorist Anna Freud (1895 – 1982) Notable contributions to the treatment of abnormal behaviour Mamie Phipps Clark (1917 – 1983) Demonstrated how children of colour recognize racial differences Brenda Miller Recognized as one of Canada’s great Canadian psychologists Received recognition for her work in 1955 with a brain surgery patient without short-term memory. Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Overview of Today’s Perspectives

Today’s Five Perspectives
1. The Neuroscience Perspective: Blood, Sweat, and Fears. This approach views behaviour from the perspective of the brain , the nervous system, and other biological functions Canadian Donald Hebb known as the Father of neuropsychology. “Hebb Rule” stated: “cells that fire together, wire together.” Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Today’s Perspectives 2. Psychodynamic Perspective:
Understanding the Inner Person Behavioural influences are based on on inner, unconscious forces, over which a person has little control Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Today’s Perspectives 3. Behavioural Perspective:
Grew out of the rejection of the inner workings of the mind. Focus on observable events and behaviour that can be measured objectively. Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Today’s Perspectives 4. Cognitive Perspective
The approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Today’s Perspectives 5. Humanistic Perspective:
Today’s Perspectives 5. Humanistic Perspective: This approach suggests that all individuals strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behaviour Abraham H. Maslow Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology’s Key Issues

1. Nature versus Nurture Environment or Heredity? 2. Observable behaviour versus internal mental processes Should psychology only focus on what it can see? Having students apply such issues to a variety of areas within psychology, e. g. clinical psychology, evolutionary psychology, developmental psychology etc. Having students begin to examine their own lives based upon such issues also helps to tease out the finer points of such issues Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3. Conscious versus unconscious How much of our behaviour is produced by forces of which we are fully aware? 4. Free will versus determinism How much of behaviour is a result of choices made freely or is behaviour determined primarily by factors outside a person’s willful control? Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

5. Individual differences versus universal principles How much of our behaviour is a consequence of our unique and special qualities and how much reflects culture and society? Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Psychology’s Future Increased specialization and focus on prevention of disorders Treatment will become more available Greater influence will be spent on issues of public interest Increase in diversity Technology will advance our ability to examine the nervous system Have the class identify areas that they feel psychology should address Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Module 3: Research in Psychology
Learning Objectives What is the scientific method? How do psychologist use theory and research to answer questions of interest? What research methods do psychologist use? How do psychologist establish cause-and-effect relationships in research studies? Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The approach used by psychologists to systematically
The Scientific Method The approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behaviour and other phenomena of interest Research ties in all areas of the field of psychology. As pointed out in the chapter, research consists of three main steps: 1. Identifying questions of interest, 2. Formulating an explanation, and 3. Carrying out research designed to lend support to or refute the explanation Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Scientific Method: Developing Explanations
Research Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest Theories Hypothesis A prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested Operationalization The process of translating a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed As noted in Feldman/Dinardo, theories are “explanations” that may be supported by research or refuted. Hypothesis acts as “educated guesses” concerning theories or observations that shall be investigated during the course of research Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Scientific Method It is important to point out that the scientific method provides an objective approach to examining human and animal behaviour. Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Descriptive Research An approach used to systematically investigate a person, group, or patterns of behaviour There are several types used in Psychological Research: Archival research Use of existing data in order to test a hypothesis Case study An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people Although archival research is relatively inexpensive, it does present its problems: the data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully, the information may be incomplete, and the records needed may not exist Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Descriptive Research Survey research
A sample of people are asked a series of questions about their behaviour, thoughts, and attitudes in order to represent a larger population Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Descriptive Research Naturalistic observation Observation of naturally
occurring behaviour without intervention Naturalistic observation provides an opportunity to observe natural behaviour without intervention. Observer effect – the experimenter inadvertently being seen by the observed thereby influencing their behaviour, and observer bias – tendency for an experimenter to be sensitive to supporting data are two shortcomings to overcome Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Correlation Research Correlational Research
The relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated” Correlation does not mean “causation” Ranges from +1 to -1 Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Experimental Research
The relationship between two (or more) variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

What is necessary to do Experimental Research? Experimental Research requires the responses of at least two groups to be compared. These two groups are called: Experimental Group Control Group Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Experimental Group: A group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment Control Group A group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment In some experiments there can be more than one experimental group and/or more than one control group Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Variable Behaviour, event, or other characteristic that can change or vary in some way Independent variable The variable that is manipulated by the experiment Dependent variable The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable As previously discussed, the IV is what the experimenter believes will impact a change upon the dependent variable Helpful to reiterate the importance of developing an operational definition for both the IV and the DV Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Experimental Research: Final Step
Random assignment to condition Participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance and chance alone Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

The following slide presents the process of Random Assignment The research task is to create both a control group and a experiment group which is chosen from a population of Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Control Group Original Group Experimental Group
Main Population Being Studied Random assignment completed! Let the experiment begin! Experimental Group They will receive the treatment Note to Professor: You will need to continually click to see this slide through its completion. Random assignment of subjects prevents sampling bias Inferential statistics analyze the data collected during the course of the experiment in order to determine if the differences among the experimental and control group was significant Replication helps to support theories and/or research findings Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Experimental Research: Final Step
Replication Repetition of findings using other procedures in other setting Significant outcome Use of statistical procedures in order to determine whether or not differences between groups are large enough to be significant Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Experimental Research: In Action!
A psychological experiment is the only method of research that seeks to determine cause-effect relationships between variables Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Strategy Recap

1. What research methods do psychologists use? 2. An explanation for a phenomenon of interest is known as a _____ Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Module 4: Research Challenges: Exploring the Process
Learning Objectives What major issues confront psychologists conducting research? Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Challenges Ethics Protection of participants from
physical and mental harm The right of participants to privacy regarding their behaviour The assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary The necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures prior to participation in the experiment Use the examples of the Nuremberg trials (Nazi experiments upon Jews), or the Tuskegee experiment (lack of informed consent on observing long term effects of STD’s on African-American males) to discuss the importance of maintaining ethical standards in research Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Research Challenges Participants
Do subjects represent the scope of human behaviour? Animals Should animals be used in research? Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Threats to Experiments
Experimental bias Factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment Experimenter expectations Participant expectations The unconscious tendency for researchers to be sensitive to their expectations during the course of research is offset by methods minimize bias – operational definitions, procedures, and formulating your hypothesis prior to the research A discussion of the placebo effect is aided by the examination of medication research – Physicians Desk Reference that use placebos in a “placebo control group” and examine reported side effects and benefits by subjects Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Threats to Experiments
Placebo A false treatment, such as a pill, “drug,” or other substance without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient The unconscious tendency for researchers to be sensitive to their expectations during the course of research is offset by methods minimize bias – operational definitions, procedures, and formulating your hypothesis prior to the research A discussion of the placebo effect is aided by the examination of medication research – Physicians Desk Reference that use placebos in a “placebo control group” and examine reported side effects and benefits by subjects Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Becoming An Informed Consumer of Psychology
What was the purpose of the research? How well was the study conducted? Are the results presented fairly? Having students examine the difference between professional journals and magazine articles helps to encourage critical thinking skills Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1. Ethical research begins with the concept of informed consent. Before signing up to participate in an experiment, participants should be informed of: A. The procedure of the study, stated generally B. The risks that may be involved C. Their right to withdraw at ay time D. All of the above Copyright © 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Robert S. Feldman & Andrea Dinardo

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