1. Ethics – Util Recap What is the principle of utility?
What is the difference between act / rule and preference utilitarianism?
How does Mill separate higher and lower pleasures?
Can you identify 2 issues with Utilitarianism?

2. Ethics – Kant Recap
What is the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperatives?
What are the two formulations of the categorical imperative you need to know?
What two contradictions might stop something from being universalised?
Can you identify 2 issues with Kant?

3. In Comparison… So far we’ve looked at: We’ve also discussed:
Teleological Theories
Theories like Utilitarianism or situation ethics that look at the desirable end or result of an action.
Also known as consequentialist ethics.
Deontological Theories
Theories like Kantian ethics or divine command theory (“what God says”) that look for independent rules or duties to dictate moral action.
What is morally good is to do with the action itself, not the result.
What are the advantages of teleological views?
What are the problems for teleological views?
What are the advantages of deontological views?
What are the problems for deontological views?

4. A New/Old Kind of Theory
Normative ethical theories you have looked at so far have been either teleological or deontological. But there is a third way, going back to Aristotle, which concentrates on the character of the agent. Rather than proposing an answer to the question “which moral actions should I pursue and which should I avoid?”, virtue ethics, often labelled as ‘aretaic ethics’ (from the Greek for ‘excellent’), focuses on defining which character traits I should practise in order to become a moral human being. It concentrates on ‘being’ rather than doing – it does not ask ‘What shall I do?’, but rather ‘What sort of person should I become?’
Why might this be a better approach to ethics than the other views we’ve discussed?

5. Habit of character Agent-Centered
Ethical Theories
Teleological
Virtue
Deontological
Ends
Consequences
Calculation
Character
Habits
Living
Rules
Absolutes
Obedience
Action
Habit of character Agent-Centered
Action

6. Aristotle Who?
Aristotle lived in Ancient Greece between 384 and 322 BC.
He was a philosopher who wrote at length about science and the natural world as well as about ethics.
He based his conclusions on observation. For instance, he learnt about biological development by opening fertilised chicken eggs at various stages and describing the state of the organs and tissues inside.
He used these same methods to investigate the “practical sciences” of ethics and politics.
He was often in conflict with his teacher Plato who favoured a more metaphysical world view.

7. Where to begin?
Aristotle begins his Nicomachean Ethics with a claim that essentially sets out his philosophical stall: “Every art, every procedure, every action and undertaking aims at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim.” What do you think he means by this?

8. Think Carefully – Your Aims…
What aims or goals do you have in your life? Complete the task on page 115 of the orange textbooks (do not rub it out after as you’ll need it shortly). Make sure you also consider the questions underneath.

9. Means and Ends
When we look at our lives, our different activities all seem to aim at ‘goods’ – things that will add value to our lives or the lives of the people involved in some way. These ‘goods’ might also be referred to as ‘ends’. For example:
Jobs aim at money
Medicine aims at health.
Military action aims at victory.
The way in which we achieve these ‘ends’ are usually referred to as ‘means’.

10. Means and Ends
Aristotle believes that most of our ends are in fact means to achieving some greater end, and that this greater end is itself means to achieving a further end or goal and so on etc.
Action 1
End 2
Means to…
Means to…
Means to…
End 1
End 3

11. Means and Ends
This can perhaps be simplified to the idea of short term goals (subordinate aims) and long term goals (superior aims):
Short term goals are actions or activities that we aim to complete in the pursuit of some greater purpose or long-term goal.

12. Means and Ends
So if we take the example of a horse saddler in the time of Aristotle:
He might make bridles with the aim of controlling a horse
The aim of controlling a horse is to improve military horsemanship.
The aim of improving horsemanship is to develop the art of warfare (military science).
The aim of improving military science will ultimately lead to a safer Athens
So when we look at this as a whole, we can see the first 3 short term goals are actually the means to the ultimate end, which is a safer Athens.

13. Back to your ideal life…
Go back through your list and identify each of the things either as a means / subordinate aim (part of some greater goal) or an end / superior aim (something you want for itself and not for anything else). If you’re struggling with this concept, read through page 116 to recap what we’ve just discussed. Extension: For each item that is a ‘means’ can you identify what it is a ‘means’ to?

14. The Good
So Aristotle thinks he has shown that every activity we undertake is in pursuit of some good – something that will benefit our lives.
He then takes this further and says that there is ultimately one end we are all aiming for. He refers to this final end as ‘the Good’. Something that we are all striving to reach in order to make our lives as valuable as they can be.

15. How do we know?
So how are we to know when we have found an answer, when we have discovered something that really is the supreme Good, the final end we are looking for? Aristotle outlines the following criteria:
It must be an end (We don’t want it for any other reason).
It must be the final end (That for which everything else is done)
It must be self-sufficient. (It needs nothing more to complete it)
It must be a life that we all want.
Finally it must be something that is related to us as human beings. (Which we shall see when we come to his arguments later.)

16. The Question…
If Aristotle is right and there is some end for the sake of which we do everything else, and this end is something we desire for its own sake, and not for the sake of anything else, what might this end be?
Was there one overarching aim or end that everything else on your list was building towards?

17. What does Aristotle think?
“What is the highest of all practical goods? Well… there is pretty general agreement. ‘It is happiness*’ say both ordinary and cultured people.” – Aristotle
*A basic translation of an important term – Eudaimonia. Whilst happiness gives the gist of what Aristotle means by this, we will be looking in more detail at the actual meaning next lesson.

18. Confirming this…
Write this down: “I am sitting in lesson in order to…” When you have written that down, add the next “In order to…” Keep adding “in order to” until you can’t go any further. What is the thing at the bottom of your list? Do we all seem to share this goal?
I am sitting in lesson in order to get a good exam result, in order to go to a good university, in order to get a good job, in order to…

19. Recap Questions
What is the difference between Virtue Ethics and the other ethical theories we’ve looked at?
What is “the Good” according to Aristotle? Why is this thing “the Good” above all others?

20. Problems with traditional ethical theories.
Quick Summary So Far
Problems with traditional ethical theories.
Instead try to base ethics on how we should be as people, not rules or consequences.
Everyone’s actions are guided by particular aims or ‘goods’. We want to achieve these things to add value to our lives.
These ‘goods’ are in fact guided by some ultimate aim or ‘good’. One that will make our lives extremely valuable and is not wanted for anything else.
The ultimate aim for humans in life is happiness, or more specifically – Eudaimonia.
????