2. How does critical thinking feed a scientific attitude, and smarter thinking for everyday life?
What Is Critical Thinking?
Thinking that does not blindly accept conclusions
Thinking that examines assumptions and discerns hidden bias
Thinking that evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions
Critical thinkers do not make claims based on feelings. “I feel like self-driving cars are dangerous.”

3. Empiricism John Locke (1632-1704)
Locke famously argued that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa- a “blank slate”- on which experience writes.
This idea helped form modern empiricism, the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge.

4. Psychological Science Is Born
Wilhelm Wundt ( ): The Father of Psychology
Established the first psychological laboratory in in Germany
Defined psychology as “science of mental life”
Added two key elements to enhance scientific nature of psychology
Elements included carefully measured observations and experiments
Wundt’s American student G. Stanley Hall established the first psychology laboratory in the US

5. Structuralism vs. Functionalism
The new science of psychology became organized into different branches or schools of thought: structuralism, functionalism, and behavorism
Flipit video structuralism vs functionalism

6. Structuralism: Edward Bradford Titchener
Structuralism: early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.
Introspection: the process of looking inward in order to directly observe one’s own psychological processes.
Mentored by Wundt
Encouraged introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of experience, in reaction to stimuli
Used these introspective reports to build a view of the mind’s structure
Relied on “self-report” data = unreliable

7. Functionalism: William James (1842-1910)
Functionalism: an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavior processes function- how they enable an organism to adapt, survive and flourish .
James studied human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and asked:
What function might they serve?
How might they have helped our ancestors survive?

8. First women in psychology
Mary Whiton Calkins ( )
Became memory researcher and first APA female president
Studied with James but discriminated against and denied PhD because she was a woman

9. First women in psychology
Margaret Floy Washburn ( )
Became second APA female president
Wrote The Animal Mind
Studied with Titchener but barred from his experimental psychology organization

10. Psychology Science Develops: Behaviorism
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
Became major force in psychology into the 1960s
Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)
Proponents
John B. Watson (Classical conditioning) and B.F. Skinner (Operant conditioning) dismissed introspection and focused on observable behavior.
Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduced famous “Little Albert” experiments through classical conditioning= fear (and really anything) can be learned

11. Psychology Science Develops
Sigmund Freud= father of psychoanalytic psychology
Psychoanalytic psychology(also known as Freudian psychology): emphasized ways unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect later behavior
Was second major force until the 1960s

12. Psychology Science Develops
Humanistic psychology: a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential. Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Found behaviorism and Freudian psychology too limiting
Revived interest in study of mental processes
Focused on ways current environments nurture or limit growth potential and importance of having need for love and acceptance satisfied
Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

13. Psychology Science Develops
The cognitive revolution occurred in 1960 and focus returned to interest in mental processes which focused on cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology: The study of mental processes that occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate and solve problems
Led by Ivan Pavlov and Jean Piaget
The field of cognitive neuroscience ties the science of mind (cognitive psychology) and the science of the brain (neuroscience) and focuses on brain activity underlying mental activity

14. Modern Definition of Psychology
Behavior = any action that can be observed or recorded
Mental processes = internal, subjective experiences inferred from behavior
Psychology = science of behavior and mental processes

15. Contemporary Psychology
Psychology’s Biggest and Most Persistent Issue= Nature vs. Nurture
Nature-nurture issue: longstanding controversy over the contribution genes (nature) and experience (nurture) make to the development of psychological traits
To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth (our “Nature”)?
And to what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment/ experience (our “Nurture”)?
Bottom line= nurture works on what nature provides

16. Contemporary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics
Nature
Plato: Character and intelligence inherited; some ideas inborn
Descartes: Some ideas are intuitive
Darwin: Some traits, behaviors, and instincts are part of species; natural selection- inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Nurture
Aristotle: Content of mind comes through senses
Locke: Mind in blank slate

17. Contemporary Psychology
Evolutionary psychology: Focuses on how humans are alike because of common biology and evolutionary history based on the idea of natural selection
Behavior genetics: Focuses on differences related to differing genes and environments
Cross-cultural psychology: Focuses on ways culture shapes behavior
Gender psychology: Focus on behavioral differences between males and females

18. Contemporary Psychology
Martin Seligman- Positive psychology: the scientific study of human flourishing with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive
Courtesy Martin Seligman

19. Behavior or mental process
The Biopsychosocial Approach: integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints
Behavior or mental process
Biological influences:
genetic predispositions (genetically influenced traits)
genetic mutations
natural selection of adaptive traits and behaviors passed down through generations
genes responding to the environment
Psychological influences:
learned fears and other learned expectations
emotional responses
cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations
Social-cultural influences:
presence of others
cultural, societal, and family expectations
peer and other group influences
compelling models (such as in the media)

20. Psychology’s Subfields
Perspective
Focus
Behavioral Psychology
The scientific study of observable behavior explained through principles of learning
Biological psychology
The scientific study of links between biological and psychological processes
Psychodynamic psychology
A branch of psychology that looks at how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior in order to treat psychological disorders
Social-cultural psychology
The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
Psychometrics
The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Developmental psychology
Branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change through the lifespan
Social psychology
The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Industrial/ organizational psychology
The application of psychological concepts in order to optimize human behavior in the workplace
Clinical psychology
A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Table 1-1

21. Best Learning Practices: Improve Retention and Grades!
Scientific studies show that
Testing boosts retention of material
Testing effect- enhanced memory after retrieving instead of rereading information
Spaced rehearsal, interspaced with other subjects, is more efficient than cramming
Concept familiarity is not effective enough

22. SQ3R Study Method Survey Question Read Rehearse Review
Scan/Skim what you are about to read, especially chapter outlines and section heads.
Question
Ask questions that the text might answer; write guesses.
Read
Look for the answer to your questions, reading a manageable amount at a time.
Rehearse
Recall what you’ve read in your own words. Test yourself with quizzes.
Review

23. Four Additional Tips Distribute study time Learn to think critically
Process class information actively
Overlearn