1. UNIT 3
GENETICS

2. Chapter 6
Meiosis and Mendel

11. “hairy ears” (hypertrichosis)- due to holandric gene
“hairy ears” (hypertrichosis)- due to holandric gene (Y chromosome)-only occurs in males. Appears in all sons.

13. Polydactyly- having extra fingers

14. ‘Myths and Mutants’
Work with animals led to recognition of heritable traits in humans
Stories of heritable deformities in humans appear in myths and legends (e.g. cyclops, giants, etc.)
60 birth defects on Babylonian clay tablets (5000 years ago)
Knowledge of traits played role in shaping social customs and mores (e.g. choosing a wife/husband)

15. I. Chromosomes and Meiosis (6.1)
A. You have many types of specialized cells in your body
1. Cells can be divided into two types
a. Somatic Cells- body cells. Make up most of your body tissues and organs.

16. b. Germ Cells- cells in your reproductive organs, the ovaries and testes
1). Can develop into gametes (called sex cells)
  2). Form egg and sperm cells

17. 2. Gametes have DNA that is passed to offspring in chromosomes

18. B. Each species has characteristic number of chromosomes per cell.  
1. Chromosome number does not seem to be linked to complexity of organism.
2. Organisms differ from each other because of way genes are expressed, not because they have different genes.

19. II. You cells have autosomes and sex chromosomes
A. Your body has 23 pairs of chromosomes
1. Each pair referred to as homologous pair
2. Homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes- one from father and one from mother

20. B. Autosomes- chromosome pairs 1-22 are called autosomes (are
B. Autosomes- chromosome pairs 1-22 are called autosomes (are homologous)

21. C. Sex chromosomes- pair of chromosomes
1. Directly control development of sexual characteristics
2. Very different in humans (not homologous)
    
a. X chromosome- female
b. Y-chromosome- male
Sex chromosomes

22. D. Body cells are diploid; gametes are haploid
1. sexual reproduction involves fusion of two gametes
  a. results in genetic mixture of both parents
b. Fusion of egg and sperm called fertilization
c. Egg and sperm only have half usual number of chromosomes 

23. 2. Diploid and Haploid cells
  a. Body cells are diploid (two copies of each chromosome)
  b. Gametes are haploid (have one copy of each chromosome) 

24. 3. Maintaining the correct number of chromosomes is important to survival of organisms

25. 3. Maintaining the correct number of chromosomes is important to survival of organisms
 4. Germ cells (sex cells) undergo process of meiosis to form gametes   
a. diploid cell divides into haploid cell
b. Sometimes called reduction division
Haploid cells

26. II. Process of Meiosis (6.2)
A. Cells go through two rounds of division in meiosis
1. Meiosis produces four haploid cells from one diploid cell
2. Process involves two rounds of cell division- Meiosis I and Meiosis II. 

27. B. Homologous Chromosomes and sister Chromatids
1. Need to distinguish between the two to understand meiosis
2. Homologous chromosomes- two separate chromosomes- one from mother, one from father.
a. very similar to each other- same length and carry same genes 

28. b. Each half of duplicated chromosome is called a chromatid
 b. Each half of duplicated chromosome is called a chromatid. (together called sister chromatids)
1). Homologous chromosomes divided in meiosis I
2). Sister chromatids not divided until meiosis II
Sister chromotids

29. C. Meiosis I (first of two phases)
1. Occurs after DNA has been replicated
2. Divides homologous chromosomes in four phases 

30. D. Meiosis II (second of two phases)
1. Divides sister chromatids in four phases
2. DNA is not replicated between meiosis I and meiosis II 

31. E. Meiosis differs from mitosis in significant ways.
1. Meiosis has two cell divisions while mitosis has one.
2. In mitosis, homologous chromosomes never pair up
3. Meiosis results in haploid cells; mitosis results in diploid cells. 

32. F. Haploid cells develop into mature gametes
1. gametogenesis- production of mature gametes

33. 2. Differs between the sexes
a. Males produce 4 equal sperm cells
b. Females produce one large egg and smaller polar bodies that are eventually broken down  

34. III. Mendel and Heredity (6.3)
A. Mendel laid the groundwork for genetics
1. Traits are distinguishing characteristics that are inherited.
2. Genetics is the study of biological inheritance patterns and variation.
3. Gregor Mendel showed that traits are inherited as discrete units.
4. Many in Mendel’s day thought traits were blended. 

35. B. Mendel’s data revealed patterns of inheritance
1. Mendel studied plant variation in a monastery garden
2. Mendel made three key decisions in his experiments
a. Control over breeding
b. Use of purebred plants
c. Observation of “either- or” traits (only appear two alternate forms)

36. 3. Experimental design
a. Mendel chose pea plants because reproduce quickly and could control how they mate 

37. b. Crossed purebred white-flowered with purebred purple-flowered pea plants.
1). Called parental, or P generation
2). Resulting plants (first filial or F1 generation) all had purple flowers 

38. c. Allowed F1 generation to self-pollinate
  1). Produced F2 generation that had both plants with purple and white flowers)
2). Trait for white had been “hidden”, it did not disappear. 

39. d. He began to observe patterns- Each cross yielded similar ratios in F2 generation (3/4 had purple, and 1/4 white)   

40. 4. Mendel made three important conclusions
  a. Traits are inherited as discrete units (explained why individual traits persisted without being blended or diluted over successive generations)

41. b. Two other key conclusions collectively called the law of segregation
1). Organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent
2). Organisms donate only one copy of each gene in their gametes (two copies of each gene segregate, or separate, during gamete formation

43. IV. Traits, Genes, and Alleles (6.4)
A. The same gene can have many versions
1. gene- a “piece” of DNA that provides a set of instructions to a cell to make a certain protein.

44. Most genes exist in many forms (called alleles)
You have two alleles for each gene` 

45. 2. Homozygous- means two of same allele
3. Heterozygous- two different alleles 

46. B. Genes influence the development of traits
1. Genome- is all the organisms genetic material
2. Genotype- refers to genetic makeup of a specific set of genes
3. Phenotypes- physical characteristics of organism (wrinkled or round seeds)

47. C. Dominant and Recessive Alleles
1. Dominant alleles- allele that is expressed when two different alleles or two dominant alleles are present (use capital letter to represent)

48. 2. Recessive alleles- only expressed if have
2. Recessive alleles- only expressed if have two copies of recessive present (use small-case letter to represent)
3. Homozygous dominant = TT
4. Heterozygous = Tt
5. Homozygous recessive = tt 

49. D. Alleles and Phenotypes
1. Both homozygous dominant and heterozygous genotypes yield a dominant phenotype.
2. Most traits occur in a range and do not follow simple dominant-recessive patterns

50. V. Traits and Probability (6.5)
A. Punnett squares illustrate genetic crosses
1. Used to predict possible genotypes resulting from a cross
a. Axes of grid represent possible gamete genotypes of each parents
b. Boxes show genotypes of offspring
c. Can determine ratio of genotypes in each generation

51. Punnett Square parents gametes Dominant Allele Possible offspring
Recessive allele
homozygous
heterozygous

52. B. Monohybrid cross involves one trait
1. Homozygous dominant X Homozygous recessive
Genotypic ratio
100% Ff
Phenotypic ratio
100% purple

53. 2. Heterozygous X Heterozygous
Genotypic ratio
1:2:1
Phenotypic ratio
3:1

54. 3. Heterozygous X Homozygous recessive
Genotypic ratio
1:1
Phenotypic ratio

55. C. Test Cross- a cross between organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype

56. D. Dihybrid cross involves two traits
1. Mendel also conducted dihybrid crosses- wondered if both traits would always appear together or if they would be expressed independently of each other
2. Mendel discovered phenotypic ratio in F2 generation as always 9:3:3:1 regardless of combination traits he used

58. 3. Mendel’s dihybrid crosses led to his second law,the law of independent assortment.
 4. The law of independent assortment states that allele pairs separate independently of each other during meiosis 

59. E. Heredity patterns can be calculated with probability
1. probability - the likelihood that a particular event will happen
2. Probability applies to random events such as meiosis and fertilization 

60. VI. Meiosis and Genetic Variation (6.6)
A. Sexual reproduction creates unique gene combinations
1. Sexual reproduction creates unique combination of genes
a. independent assortment of chromosomes in meiosis
b. random fertilization of gametes

61. 2. 223 possible sperm or egg cells produced
223 X 223 = about 70 trillion different combinations of chromosomes

62. B. Crossing over during meiosis increases genetic diversity
1. crossing over - exchange of chromosome segments between homologous chromosomes during Prophase I of Meiosis I
2. Results in new combination of genes 

63. C. Linked genes - genes located on the same chromosome inherited
C. Linked genes - genes located on the same chromosome inherited together.
1. Closer together they are high chance of inheriting together
2. If genes far apart, crossing-over may separate them
3. Gene linkage used to build genetic map of many species

65. Introduction to Genetics
Chapter 11
Introduction to Genetics

66. Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study
a. flowering.
b. gamete formation.
c. the inheritance of traits.
d. cross-pollination.

67. Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study
a. flowering.
b. gamete formation.
c. the inheritance of traits.
d. cross-pollination.

68. Offspring that result from crosses between true-breeding parents with different traits
a. are true-breeding.
b. make up the F2 generation.
c. make up the parental generation.
d. are called hybrids.

69. Offspring that result from crosses between true-breeding parents with different traits
a. are true-breeding.
b. make up the F2 generation.
c. make up the parental generation.
d. are called hybrids.

70. What are Mendel’s factors called today?
a. alleles
b. traits
c. genes
d. characters

71. What are Mendel’s factors called today?
a. alleles
b. traits
c. genes
d. characters

72. Mendel concluded that traits are
a. not inherited by offspring.
b. inherited through the passing of factors from parents to offspring.
c. determined by dominant factors only.
d. determined by recessive factors only.

73. Mendel concluded that traits are
a. not inherited by offspring.
b. inherited through the passing of factors from parents to offspring.
c. determined by dominant factors only.
d. determined by recessive factors only.

74. The principle of dominance states that
a. all alleles are dominant.
b. all alleles are recessive.
c. some alleles are dominant and others are recessive.
d. alleles are neither dominant nor recessive.

75. The principle of dominance states that
a. all alleles are dominant.
b. all alleles are recessive.
c. some alleles are dominant and others are recessive.
d. alleles are neither dominant nor recessive.

76. When Mendel crossed true-breeding tall plants with true-breeding short plants, all the offspring were tall because
a. the allele for tall plants is recessive.
b. the allele for short plants is dominant.
c. the allele for tall plants is dominant.
d. they were true-breeding like their parents.

77. When Mendel crossed true-breeding tall plants with true-breeding short plants, all the offspring were tall because
a. the allele for tall plants is recessive.
b. the allele for short plants is dominant.
c. the allele for tall plants is dominant.
d. they were true-breeding like their parents.

78. If a pea plant has a recessive allele for green peas, it will produce
a. green peas if it also has a dominant allele for yellow peas.
b. both green peas and yellow peas if it also has a dominant allele for yellow peas.
c. green peas if it does not also have a dominant allele for yellow peas.
d. yellow peas if it does not also have a dominant allele for green peas.

79. If a pea plant has a recessive allele for green peas, it will produce
a. green peas if it also has a dominant allele for yellow peas.
b. both green peas and yellow peas if it also has a dominant allele for yellow peas.
c. green peas if it does not also have a dominant allele for yellow peas.
d. yellow peas if it does not also have a dominant allele for green peas.

80. When you flip a coin, what is the probability that it will come up tails?
d. 1

81. When you flip a coin, what is the probability that it will come up tails?
d. 1

82. The principles of probability can be used to
a. predict the traits of the offspring produced by genetic crosses.
b. determine the actual outcomes of genetic crosses.
c. predict the traits of the parents used in genetic crosses.
d. decide which organisms are best to use in genetic crosses.

83. The principles of probability can be used to
a. predict the traits of the offspring produced by genetic crosses.
b. determine the actual outcomes of genetic crosses.
c. predict the traits of the parents used in genetic crosses.
d. decide which organisms are best to use in genetic crosses.

84. Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait are said to be
a. hybrid.
b. homozygous.
c. heterozygous.
d. dominant.

85. Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait are said to be
a. hybrid.
b. homozygous.
c. heterozygous.
d. dominant.

86. In the Punnett square shown in Figure 11-1, which of the following is true about the offspring resulting from the cross?
a. About half are expected to be short.
b. All are expected to be short.
c. About half are expected to be tall.
d. All are expected to be tall.

87. d. All are expected to be tall.
In the Punnett square shown in below, which of the following is true about the offspring resulting from the cross?
a. About half are expected to be short.
b. All are expected to be short.
c. About half are expected to be tall.
d. All are expected to be tall.

88. What does a Punnett square NOT show?
a. all possible results of a genetic cross
b. the genotypes of the offspring
c. the alleles in the gametes of each parent
d. the actual results of a genetic cross

89. What does a Punnett square NOT show?
a. all possible results of a genetic cross
b. the genotypes of the offspring
the alleles in the gametes of each parent
the actual results of a genetic cross

90. If you made a Punnett square showing Mendel’s cross between true-breeding tall plants with true-breeding short plants, the square would show that the offspring had
a. the genotype of one of the parents.
b. a phenotype that was different from that of both parents.
c. a genotype that was different from that of both parents.
d. the genotype of both parents.

91. If you made a Punnett square showing Mendel’s cross between true-breeding tall plants with true-breeding short plants, the square would show that the offspring had
a. the genotype of one of the parents.
b. a phenotype that was different from that of both parents.
c. a genotype that was different from that of both parents.
d. the genotype of both parents.

92. What principle states that during gamete formation genes for different traits separate without influencing each other’s inheritance?
a. principle of dominance
b. principle of independent assortment
c. principle of probabilities
d. principle of segregation

93. What principle states that during gamete formation genes for different traits separate without influencing each other’s inheritance?
a. principle of dominance
b. principle of independent assortment
c. principle of probabilities
d. principle of segregation

94. The Punnett square in Figure above shows that the gene for pea shape and the gene for pea color
a. assort independently.
b. are linked.
c. have the same alleles.
d. are always homozygous.

95. The Punnett square in Figure above shows that the gene for pea shape and the gene for pea color
a. assort independently.
b. are linked.
c. have the same alleles.
d. are always homozygous.

96. How many different allele combinations would be found in the gametes produced by a pea plant whose genotype was RrYY?
a. 2
b. 4
c. 8
d. 16

97. How many different allele combinations would be found in the gametes produced by a pea plant whose genotype was RrYY?
a. 2
b. 4
c. 8
d. 16

98. Situations in which one allele for a gene is not completely dominant over another allele for that gene are called
a. multiple alleles.
b. incomplete dominance.
c. polygenic inheritance.
d. multiple genes.

99. Situations in which one allele for a gene is not completely dominant over another allele for that gene are called
a. multiple alleles.
b. incomplete dominance.
c. polygenic inheritance.
d. multiple genes.

100. A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring
A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring. This type of inheritance is known as
a. incomplete dominance.
b. polygenic inheritance.
c. codominance.
d. multiple alleles.

101. A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring
A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring. This type of inheritance is known as
a. incomplete dominance.
b. polygenic inheritance.
c. codominance.
d. multiple alleles.

102. A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring
A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring. This type of inheritance is known as
a. incomplete dominance.
b. polygenic inheritance.
c. codominance.
d. multiple alleles.

103. A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring
A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring. This type of inheritance is known as
a. incomplete dominance.
b. polygenic inheritance.
c. codominance.
d. multiple alleles.

104. Mendel’s principles of genetics apply to
a. plants only.
b. animals only.
c. pea plants only.
d. all organisms.

105. Mendel’s principles of genetics apply to
a. plants only.
b. animals only.
c. pea plants only.
d. all organisms.

106. If an organism’s diploid number is 12, its haploid number is
c. 24.
d. 3.

107. If an organism’s diploid number is 12, its haploid number is
c. 24.
d. 3.

108. Gametes are produced by the process of
a. mitosis.
b. meiosis.
c. crossing-over.
d. replication.

109. Gametes are produced by the process of
a. mitosis.
b. meiosis.
c. crossing-over.
d. replication.

110. What is shown in figure above?
independent assortment
b. anaphase I of meiosis
c. crossing-over
d. replication

111. What is shown in figure above?
a. independent assortment
b. anaphase I of meiosis
c. crossing-over
d. replication

112. Unlike mitosis, meiosis results in the formation of
a. diploid cells.
b. haploid cells.
c. 2N daughter cells.
d. body cells.

113. Unlike mitosis, meiosis results in the formation of
a. diploid cells.
b. haploid cells.
c. 2N daughter cells.
d. body cells.

114. Linked genes
a. are never separated.
b. assort independently.
c. are on the same chromosome.
d. are always recessive.

115. Linked genes
a. are never separated.
b. assort independently.
c. are on the same chromosome.
d. are always recessive.

116. If two genes are on the same chromosome and rarely assort independently,
a. crossing-over never occurs between the genes.
b. crossing-over always occurs between the genes.
c. the genes are probably located far apart from each other.
d. the genes are probably located close to each other.

117. If two genes are on the same chromosome and rarely assort independently,
a. crossing-over never occurs between the genes.
b. crossing-over always occurs between the genes.
c. the genes are probably located far apart from each other.
d. the genes are probably located close to each other.